Nano(3)
NAME
DBI - Database independent interface for Perl
SYNOPSIS
use DBI;
@driver_names = DBI->available_drivers;
%drivers = DBI->installed_drivers;
@data_sources = DBI->data_sources($driver_name, \%attr);
$dbh = DBI->connect($data_source, $username, $auth, \%attr);
$rv = $dbh->do($statement);
$rv = $dbh->do($statement, \%attr);
$rv = $dbh->do($statement, \%attr, @bind_values);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectall_arrayref($statement);
$hash_ref = $dbh->selectall_hashref($statement, $key_field);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectcol_arrayref($statement);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectcol_arrayref($statement, \%attr);
@row_ary = $dbh->selectrow_array($statement);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectrow_arrayref($statement);
$hash_ref = $dbh->selectrow_hashref($statement);
$sth = $dbh->prepare($statement);
$sth = $dbh->prepare_cached($statement);
$rc = $sth->bind_param($p_num, $bind_value);
$rc = $sth->bind_param($p_num, $bind_value, $bind_type);
$rc = $sth->bind_param($p_num, $bind_value, \%attr);
$rv = $sth->execute;
$rv = $sth->execute(@bind_values);
$rv = $sth->execute_array(\%attr, ...);
$rc = $sth->bind_col($col_num, \$col_variable);
$rc = $sth->bind_columns(@list_of_refs_to_vars_to_bind);
@row_ary = $sth->fetchrow_array;
$ary_ref = $sth->fetchrow_arrayref;
$hash_ref = $sth->fetchrow_hashref;
$ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref;
$ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref( $slice, $max_rows );
$hash_ref = $sth->fetchall_hashref( $key_field );
$rv = $sth->rows;
$rc = $dbh->begin_work;
$rc = $dbh->commit;
$rc = $dbh->rollback;
$quoted_string = $dbh->quote($string);
$rc = $h->err;
$str = $h->errstr;
$rv = $h->state;
$rc = $dbh->disconnect;
The synopsis above only lists the major methods and parameters.
GETTING HELP
If you have questions about DBI, or DBD driver modules, you can get
help from the dbi-users@perl.org mailing list. You can get help on
subscribing and using the list by emailing dbi-users-help@perl.org.
To help you make the best use of the dbi-users mailing list, and any
other lists or forums you may use, I strongly recommend that you read
"How To Ask Questions The Smart Way" by Eric Raymond:
<http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/smart-questions.html>.
If you think you've found a bug then please also read "How to Report
Bugs Effectively" by Simon Tatham: <http://www.chiark.gree-
nend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html>.
The DBI home page at <http://dbi.perl.org/> is always worth a visit and
includes an FAQ and links to other resources.
Before asking any questions, reread this document, consult the archives
and read the DBI FAQ. The archives are listed at the end of this docu-
ment and on the DBI home page. An FAQ is installed as a DBI::FAQ mod-
ule so you can read it by executing "perldoc DBI::FAQ". However the
DBI::FAQ module is currently (2004) outdated relative to the online FAQ
on the DBI home page.
This document often uses terms like references, objects, methods. If
you're not familar with those terms then it would be a good idea to
read at least the following perl manuals first: perlreftut, perldsc,
perllol, and perlboot.
Please note that Tim Bunce does not maintain the mailing lists or the
web page (generous volunteers do that). So please don't send mail
directly to him; he just doesn't have the time to answer questions per-
sonally. The dbi-users mailing list has lots of experienced people who
should be able to help you if you need it. If you do email Tim he's
very likely to just forward it to the mailing list.
NOTES
This is the DBI specification that corresponds to the DBI version 1.51.
The DBI is evolving at a steady pace, so it's good to check that you
have the latest copy.
The significant user-visible changes in each release are documented in
the DBI::Changes module so you can read them by executing "perldoc
DBI::Changes".
Some DBI changes require changes in the drivers, but the drivers can
take some time to catch up. Newer versions of the DBI have added fea-
tures that may not yet be supported by the drivers you use. Talk to
the authors of your drivers if you need a new feature that's not yet
supported.
Features added after DBI 1.21 (February 2002) are marked in the text
with the version number of the DBI release they first appeared in.
Extensions to the DBI API often use the "DBIx::*" namespace. See "Nam-
ing Conventions and Name Space". DBI extension modules can be found at
<http://search.cpan.org/search?mode=module&query=DBIx>. And all mod-
ules related to the DBI can be found at
<http://search.cpan.org/search?query=DBI&mode=all>.
DESCRIPTION
The DBI is a database access module for the Perl programming language.
It defines a set of methods, variables, and conventions that provide a
consistent database interface, independent of the actual database being
used.
It is important to remember that the DBI is just an interface. The DBI
is a layer of "glue" between an application and one or more database
driver modules. It is the driver modules which do most of the real
work. The DBI provides a standard interface and framework for the driv-
ers to operate within.
Architecture of a DBI Application
|<- Scope of DBI ->|
.-. .--------------. .-------------.
.-------. | |---| XYZ Driver |---| XYZ Engine |
| Perl | | | `--------------' `-------------'
| script| |A| |D| .--------------. .-------------.
| using |--|P|--|B|---|Oracle Driver |---|Oracle Engine|
| DBI | |I| |I| `--------------' `-------------'
| API | | |...
|methods| | |... Other drivers
`-------' | |...
`-'
The API, or Application Programming Interface, defines the call inter-
face and variables for Perl scripts to use. The API is implemented by
the Perl DBI extension.
The DBI "dispatches" the method calls to the appropriate driver for
actual execution. The DBI is also responsible for the dynamic loading
of drivers, error checking and handling, providing default implementa-
tions for methods, and many other non-database specific duties.
Each driver contains implementations of the DBI methods using the pri-
vate interface functions of the corresponding database engine. Only
authors of sophisticated/multi-database applications or generic library
functions need be concerned with drivers.
Notation and Conventions
The following conventions are used in this document:
$dbh Database handle object
$sth Statement handle object
$drh Driver handle object (rarely seen or used in applications)
$h Any of the handle types above ($dbh, $sth, or $drh)
$rc General Return Code (boolean: true=ok, false=error)
$rv General Return Value (typically an integer)
@ary List of values returned from the database, typically a row of data
$rows Number of rows processed (if available, else -1)
$fh A filehandle
undef NULL values are represented by undefined values in Perl
\%attr Reference to a hash of attribute values passed to methods
Note that Perl will automatically destroy database and statement handle
objects if all references to them are deleted.
Outline Usage
To use DBI, first you need to load the DBI module:
use DBI;
use strict;
(The "use strict;" isn't required but is strongly recommended.)
Then you need to "connect" to your data source and get a handle for
that connection:
$dbh = DBI->connect($dsn, $user, $password,
{ RaiseError => 1, AutoCommit => 0 });
Since connecting can be expensive, you generally just connect at the
start of your program and disconnect at the end.
Explicitly defining the required "AutoCommit" behaviour is strongly
recommended and may become mandatory in a later version. This deter-
mines whether changes are automatically committed to the database when
executed, or need to be explicitly committed later.
The DBI allows an application to "prepare" statements for later execu-
tion. A prepared statement is identified by a statement handle held in
a Perl variable. We'll call the Perl variable $sth in our examples.
The typical method call sequence for a "SELECT" statement is:
prepare,
execute, fetch, fetch, ...
execute, fetch, fetch, ...
execute, fetch, fetch, ...
for example:
$sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT foo, bar FROM table WHERE baz=?");
$sth->execute( $baz );
while ( @row = $sth->fetchrow_array ) {
print "@row\n";
}
The typical method call sequence for a non-"SELECT" statement is:
prepare,
execute,
execute,
execute.
for example:
$sth = $dbh->prepare("INSERT INTO table(foo,bar,baz) VALUES (?,?,?)");
while(<CSV>) {
chomp;
my ($foo,$bar,$baz) = split /,/;
$sth->execute( $foo, $bar, $baz );
}
The "do()" method can be used for non repeated non-"SELECT" statement
(or with drivers that don't support placeholders):
$rows_affected = $dbh->do("UPDATE your_table SET foo = foo + 1");
To commit your changes to the database (when "AutoCommit" is off):
$dbh->commit; # or call $dbh->rollback; to undo changes
Finally, when you have finished working with the data source, you
should "disconnect" from it:
$dbh->disconnect;
General Interface Rules & Caveats
The DBI does not have a concept of a "current session". Every session
has a handle object (i.e., a $dbh) returned from the "connect" method.
That handle object is used to invoke database related methods.
Most data is returned to the Perl script as strings. (Null values are
returned as "undef".) This allows arbitrary precision numeric data to
be handled without loss of accuracy. Beware that Perl may not preserve
the same accuracy when the string is used as a number.
Dates and times are returned as character strings in the current
default format of the corresponding database engine. Time zone effects
are database/driver dependent.
Perl supports binary data in Perl strings, and the DBI will pass binary
data to and from the driver without change. It is up to the driver
implementors to decide how they wish to handle such binary data.
Most databases that understand multiple character sets have a default
global charset. Text stored in the database is, or should be, stored in
that charset; if not, then that's the fault of either the database or
the application that inserted the data. When text is fetched it should
be automatically converted to the charset of the client, presumably
based on the locale. If a driver needs to set a flag to get that behav-
iour, then it should do so; it should not require the application to do
that.
Multiple SQL statements may not be combined in a single statement han-
dle ($sth), although some databases and drivers do support this
(notably Sybase and SQL Server).
Non-sequential record reads are not supported in this version of the
DBI. In other words, records can only be fetched in the order that the
database returned them, and once fetched they are forgotten.
Positioned updates and deletes are not directly supported by the DBI.
See the description of the "CursorName" attribute for an alternative.
Individual driver implementors are free to provide any private func-
tions and/or handle attributes that they feel are useful. Private
driver functions can be invoked using the DBI "func()" method. Private
driver attributes are accessed just like standard attributes.
Many methods have an optional "\%attr" parameter which can be used to
pass information to the driver implementing the method. Except where
specifically documented, the "\%attr" parameter can only be used to
pass driver specific hints. In general, you can ignore "\%attr" parame-
ters or pass it as "undef".
Naming Conventions and Name Space
The DBI package and all packages below it ("DBI::*") are reserved for
use by the DBI. Extensions and related modules use the "DBIx::" names-
pace (see <http://www.perl.com/CPAN/modules/by-module/DBIx/>). Package
names beginning with "DBD::" are reserved for use by DBI database driv-
ers. All environment variables used by the DBI or by individual DBDs
begin with ""DBI_"" or ""DBD_"".
The letter case used for attribute names is significant and plays an
important part in the portability of DBI scripts. The case of the
attribute name is used to signify who defined the meaning of that name
and its values.
Case of name Has a meaning defined by
------------ ------------------------
UPPER_CASE Standards, e.g., X/Open, ISO SQL92 etc (portable)
MixedCase DBI API (portable), underscores are not used.
lower_case Driver or database engine specific (non-portable)
It is of the utmost importance that Driver developers only use lower-
case attribute names when defining private attributes. Private
attribute names must be prefixed with the driver name or suitable
abbreviation (e.g., ""ora_"" for Oracle, ""ing_"" for Ingres, etc).
SQL - A Query Language
Most DBI drivers require applications to use a dialect of SQL (Struc-
tured Query Language) to interact with the database engine. The "Stan-
dards Reference Information" section provides links to useful informa-
tion about SQL.
The DBI itself does not mandate or require any particular language to
be used; it is language independent. In ODBC terms, the DBI is in
"pass-thru" mode, although individual drivers might not be. The only
requirement is that queries and other statements must be expressed as a
single string of characters passed as the first argument to the "pre-
pare" or "do" methods.
For an interesting diversion on the real history of RDBMS and SQL, from
the people who made it happen, see:
http://ftp.digital.com/pub/DEC/SRC/technical-notes/SRC-1997-018-html/sqlr95.html
Follow the "Full Contents" then "Intergalactic dataspeak" links for the
SQL history.
Placeholders and Bind Values
Some drivers support placeholders and bind values. Placeholders, also
called parameter markers, are used to indicate values in a database
statement that will be supplied later, before the prepared statement is
executed. For example, an application might use the following to
insert a row of data into the SALES table:
INSERT INTO sales (product_code, qty, price) VALUES (?, ?, ?)
or the following, to select the description for a product:
SELECT description FROM products WHERE product_code = ?
The "?" characters are the placeholders. The association of actual
values with placeholders is known as binding, and the values are
referred to as bind values.
Note that the "?" is not enclosed in quotation marks, even when the
placeholder represents a string. Some drivers also allow placeholders
like ":"name and ":"n (e.g., ":1", ":2", and so on) in addition to "?",
but their use is not portable.
With most drivers, placeholders can't be used for any element of a
statement that would prevent the database server from validating the
statement and creating a query execution plan for it. For example:
"SELECT name, age FROM ?" # wrong (will probably fail)
"SELECT name, ? FROM people" # wrong (but may not 'fail')
Also, placeholders can only represent single scalar values. For exam-
ple, the following statement won't work as expected for more than one
value:
"SELECT name, age FROM people WHERE name IN (?)" # wrong
"SELECT name, age FROM people WHERE name IN (?,?)" # two names
When using placeholders with the SQL "LIKE" qualifier, you must remem-
ber that the placeholder substitutes for the whole string. So you
should use ""... LIKE ? ..."" and include any wildcard characters in
the value that you bind to the placeholder.
NULL Values
Undefined values, or "undef", are used to indicate NULL values. You
can insert and update columns with a NULL value as you would a non-NULL
value. These examples insert and update the column "age" with a NULL
value:
$sth = $dbh->prepare(qq{
INSERT INTO people (fullname, age) VALUES (?, ?)
});
$sth->execute("Joe Bloggs", undef);
$sth = $dbh->prepare(qq{
UPDATE people SET age = ? WHERE fullname = ?
});
$sth->execute(undef, "Joe Bloggs");
However, care must be taken when trying to use NULL values in a "WHERE"
clause. Consider:
SELECT fullname FROM people WHERE age = ?
Binding an "undef" (NULL) to the placeholder will not select rows which
have a NULL "age"! At least for database engines that conform to the
SQL standard. Refer to the SQL manual for your database engine or any
SQL book for the reasons for this. To explicitly select NULLs you have
to say ""WHERE age IS NULL"".
A common issue is to have a code fragment handle a value that could be
either "defined" or "undef" (non-NULL or NULL) at runtime. A simple
technique is to prepare the appropriate statement as needed, and sub-
stitute the placeholder for non-NULL cases:
$sql_clause = defined $age? "age = ?" : "age IS NULL";
$sth = $dbh->prepare(qq{
SELECT fullname FROM people WHERE $sql_clause
});
$sth->execute(defined $age ? $age : ());
The following technique illustrates qualifying a "WHERE" clause with
several columns, whose associated values ("defined" or "undef") are in
a hash %h:
for my $col ("age", "phone", "email") {
if (defined $h{$col}) {
push @sql_qual, "$col = ?";
push @sql_bind, $h{$col};
}
else {
push @sql_qual, "$col IS NULL";
}
}
$sql_clause = join(" AND ", @sql_qual);
$sth = $dbh->prepare(qq{
SELECT fullname FROM people WHERE $sql_clause
});
$sth->execute(@sql_bind);
The techniques above call prepare for the SQL statement with each call
to execute. Because calls to prepare() can be expensive, performance
can suffer when an application iterates many times over statements like
the above.
A better solution is a single "WHERE" clause that supports both NULL
and non-NULL comparisons. Its SQL statement would need to be prepared
only once for all cases, thus improving performance. Several examples
of "WHERE" clauses that support this are presented below. But each
example lacks portability, robustness, or simplicity. Whether an exam-
ple is supported on your database engine depends on what SQL extensions
it provides, and where it supports the "?" placeholder in a statement.
0) age = ?
1) NVL(age, xx) = NVL(?, xx)
2) ISNULL(age, xx) = ISNULL(?, xx)
3) DECODE(age, ?, 1, 0) = 1
4) age = ? OR (age IS NULL AND ? IS NULL)
5) age = ? OR (age IS NULL AND SP_ISNULL(?) = 1)
6) age = ? OR (age IS NULL AND ? = 1)
Statements formed with the above "WHERE" clauses require execute state-
ments as follows. The arguments are required, whether their values are
"defined" or "undef".
0,1,2,3) $sth->execute($age);
4,5) $sth->execute($age, $age);
6) $sth->execute($age, defined($age) ? 0 : 1);
Example 0 should not work (as mentioned earlier), but may work on a few
database engines anyway (e.g. Sybase). Example 0 is part of examples
4, 5, and 6, so if example 0 works, these other examples may work, even
if the engine does not properly support the right hand side of the "OR"
expression.
Examples 1 and 2 are not robust: they require that you provide a valid
column value xx (e.g. '~') which is not present in any row. That means
you must have some notion of what data won't be stored in the column,
and expect clients to adhere to that.
Example 5 requires that you provide a stored procedure (SP_ISNULL in
this example) that acts as a function: it checks whether a value is
null, and returns 1 if it is, or 0 if not.
Example 6, the least simple, is probably the most portable, i.e., it
should work with with most, if not all, database engines.
Here is a table that indicates which examples above are known to work
on various database engines:
-----Examples------
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
- - - - - - -
Oracle 9 N Y N Y Y ? Y
Informix IDS 9 N N N Y N Y Y
MS SQL N N Y N Y ? Y
Sybase Y N N N N N Y
AnyData,DBM,CSV Y N N N Y Y* Y
* Works only because Example 0 works.
DBI provides a sample perl script that will test the examples above on
your database engine and tell you which ones work. It is located in
the ex/ subdirectory of the DBI source distribution, or here:
<http://svn.perl.org/modules/dbi/trunk/ex/perl_dbi_nulls_test.pl>
Please use the script to help us fill-in and maintain this table.
Performance
Without using placeholders, the insert statement shown previously would
have to contain the literal values to be inserted and would have to be
re-prepared and re-executed for each row. With placeholders, the insert
statement only needs to be prepared once. The bind values for each row
can be given to the "execute" method each time it's called. By avoiding
the need to re-prepare the statement for each row, the application typ-
ically runs many times faster. Here's an example:
my $sth = $dbh->prepare(q{
INSERT INTO sales (product_code, qty, price) VALUES (?, ?, ?)
}) or die $dbh->errstr;
while (<>) {
chomp;
my ($product_code, $qty, $price) = split /,/;
$sth->execute($product_code, $qty, $price) or die $dbh->errstr;
}
$dbh->commit or die $dbh->errstr;
See "execute" and "bind_param" for more details.
The "q{...}" style quoting used in this example avoids clashing with
quotes that may be used in the SQL statement. Use the double-quote like
"qq{...}" operator if you want to interpolate variables into the
string. See "Quote and Quote-like Operators" in perlop for more
details.
See also the "bind_columns" method, which is used to associate Perl
variables with the output columns of a "SELECT" statement.
THE DBI PACKAGE AND CLASS
In this section, we cover the DBI class methods, utility functions, and
the dynamic attributes associated with generic DBI handles.
DBI Constants
Constants representing the values of the SQL standard types can be
imported individually by name, or all together by importing the special
":sql_types" tag.
The names and values of all the defined SQL standard types can be pro-
duced like this:
foreach (@{ $DBI::EXPORT_TAGS{sql_types} }) {
printf "%s=%d\n", $_, &{"DBI::$_"};
}
These constants are defined by SQL/CLI, ODBC or both. "SQL_BIGINT" is
(currently) omitted, because SQL/CLI and ODBC provide conflicting
codes.
See the "type_info", "type_info_all", and "bind_param" methods for pos-
sible uses.
Note that just because the DBI defines a named constant for a given
data type doesn't mean that drivers will support that data type.
DBI Class Methods
The following methods are provided by the DBI class:
"parse_dsn"
($scheme, $driver, $attr_string, $attr_hash, $driver_dsn) = DBI->parse_dsn($dsn)
or die "Can't parse DBI DSN '$dsn'";
Breaks apart a DBI Data Source Name (DSN) and returns the individ-
ual parts. If $dsn doesn't contain a valid DSN then parse_dsn()
returns an empty list.
$scheme is the first part of the DSN and is currently always 'dbi'.
$driver is the driver name, possibly defaulted to $ENV{DBI_DRIVER},
and may be undefined. $attr_string is the contents of the optional
attribute string, which may be undefined. If $attr_string is not
empty then $attr_hash is a reference to a hash containing the
parsed attribute names and values. $driver_dsn is the last part of
the DBI DSN string. For example:
($scheme, $driver, $attr_string, $attr_hash, $driver_dsn)
= DBI->parse_dsn("DBI:MyDriver(RaiseError=>1):db=test;port=42");
$scheme = 'dbi';
$driver = 'MyDriver';
$attr_string = 'RaiseError=>1';
$attr_hash = { 'RaiseError' => '1' };
$driver_dsn = 'db=test;port=42';
The parse_dsn() method was added in DBI 1.43.
"connect"
$dbh = DBI->connect($data_source, $username, $password)
or die $DBI::errstr;
$dbh = DBI->connect($data_source, $username, $password, \%attr)
or die $DBI::errstr;
Establishes a database connection, or session, to the requested
$data_source. Returns a database handle object if the connection
succeeds. Use "$dbh->disconnect" to terminate the connection.
If the connect fails (see below), it returns "undef" and sets both
$DBI::err and $DBI::errstr. (It does not explicitly set $!.) You
should generally test the return status of "connect" and "print
$DBI::errstr" if it has failed.
Multiple simultaneous connections to multiple databases through
multiple drivers can be made via the DBI. Simply make one "connect"
call for each database and keep a copy of each returned database
handle.
The $data_source value must begin with ""dbi:"driver_name":"". The
driver_name specifies the driver that will be used to make the con-
nection. (Letter case is significant.)
As a convenience, if the $data_source parameter is undefined or
empty, the DBI will substitute the value of the environment vari-
able "DBI_DSN". If just the driver_name part is empty (i.e., the
$data_source prefix is ""dbi::""), the environment variable
"DBI_DRIVER" is used. If neither variable is set, then "connect"
dies.
Examples of $data_source values are:
dbi:DriverName:database_name
dbi:DriverName:database_name@hostname:port
dbi:DriverName:database=database_name;host=hostname;port=port
There is no standard for the text following the driver name. Each
driver is free to use whatever syntax it wants. The only require-
ment the DBI makes is that all the information is supplied in a
single string. You must consult the documentation for the drivers
you are using for a description of the syntax they require.
It is recommended that drivers support the ODBC style, shown in the
last example above. It is also recommended that that they support
the three common names '"host"', '"port"', and '"database"' (plus
'"db"' as an alias for "database"). This simplifies automatic con-
struction of basic DSNs: "dbi:$driver:data-
base=$db;host=$host;port=$port". Drivers should aim to 'do some-
thing reasonable' when given a DSN in this form, but if any part is
meaningless for that driver (such as 'port' for Informix) it should
generate an error if that part is not empty.
If the environment variable "DBI_AUTOPROXY" is defined (and the
driver in $data_source is not ""Proxy"") then the connect request
will automatically be changed to:
$ENV{DBI_AUTOPROXY};dsn=$data_source
"DBI_AUTOPROXY" is typically set as ""dbi:Proxy:host-
name=...;port=..."". If $ENV{DBI_AUTOPROXY} doesn't begin with
'"dbi:"' then "dbi:Proxy:" will be prepended to it first. See the
DBD::Proxy documentation for more details.
If $username or $password are undefined (rather than just empty),
then the DBI will substitute the values of the "DBI_USER" and
"DBI_PASS" environment variables, respectively. The DBI will warn
if the environment variables are not defined. However, the every-
day use of these environment variables is not recommended for secu-
rity reasons. The mechanism is primarily intended to simplify test-
ing. See below for alternative way to specify the username and
password.
"DBI->connect" automatically installs the driver if it has not been
installed yet. Driver installation either returns a valid driver
handle, or it dies with an error message that includes the string
""install_driver"" and the underlying problem. So "DBI->connect"
will die on a driver installation failure and will only return
"undef" on a connect failure, in which case $DBI::errstr will hold
the error message. Use "eval { ... }" if you need to catch the
""install_driver"" error.
The $data_source argument (with the ""dbi:...:"" prefix removed)
and the $username and $password arguments are then passed to the
driver for processing. The DBI does not define any interpretation
for the contents of these fields. The driver is free to interpret
the $data_source, $username, and $password fields in any way, and
supply whatever defaults are appropriate for the engine being
accessed. (Oracle, for example, uses the ORACLE_SID and TWO_TASK
environment variables if no $data_source is specified.)
The "AutoCommit" and "PrintError" attributes for each connection
default to "on". (See "AutoCommit" and "PrintError" for more infor-
mation.) However, it is strongly recommended that you explicitly
define "AutoCommit" rather than rely on the default. The "Print-
Warn" attribute defaults to on if $^W is true, i.e., perl is run-
ning with warnings enabled.
The "\%attr" parameter can be used to alter the default settings of
"PrintError", "RaiseError", "AutoCommit", and other attributes. For
example:
$dbh = DBI->connect($data_source, $user, $pass, {
PrintError => 0,
AutoCommit => 0
});
The username and password can also be specified using the
attributes "Username" and "Password", in which case they take
precedence over the $username and $password parameters.
You can also define connection attribute values within the
$data_source parameter. For example:
dbi:DriverName(PrintWarn=>1,PrintError=>0,Taint=>1):...
Individual attributes values specified in this way take precedence
over any conflicting values specified via the "\%attr" parameter to
"connect".
The "dbi_connect_method" attribute can be used to specify which
driver method should be called to establish the connection. The
only useful values are 'connect', 'connect_cached', or some spe-
cialized case like 'Apache::DBI::connect' (which is automatically
the default when running within Apache).
Where possible, each session ($dbh) is independent from the trans-
actions in other sessions. This is useful when you need to hold
cursors open across transactions--for example, if you use one ses-
sion for your long lifespan cursors (typically read-only) and
another for your short update transactions.
For compatibility with old DBI scripts, the driver can be specified
by passing its name as the fourth argument to "connect" (instead of
"\%attr"):
$dbh = DBI->connect($data_source, $user, $pass, $driver);
In this "old-style" form of "connect", the $data_source should not
start with ""dbi:driver_name:"". (If it does, the embedded
driver_name will be ignored). Also note that in this older form of
"connect", the "$dbh->{AutoCommit}" attribute is undefined, the
"$dbh->{PrintError}" attribute is off, and the old "DBI_DBNAME"
environment variable is checked if "DBI_DSN" is not defined. Beware
that this "old-style" "connect" will soon be withdrawn in a future
version of DBI.
"connect_cached"
$dbh = DBI->connect_cached($data_source, $username, $password)
or die $DBI::errstr;
$dbh = DBI->connect_cached($data_source, $username, $password, \%attr)
or die $DBI::errstr;
"connect_cached" is like "connect", except that the database handle
returned is also stored in a hash associated with the given parame-
ters. If another call is made to "connect_cached" with the same
parameter values, then the corresponding cached $dbh will be
returned if it is still valid. The cached database handle is
replaced with a new connection if it has been disconnected or if
the "ping" method fails.
That the behaviour of this method differs in several respects from
the behaviour of persistent connections implemented by Apache::DBI.
However, if Apache::DBI is loaded then "connect_cached" will use
it.
Caching connections can be useful in some applications, but it can
also cause problems, such as too many connections, and so should be
used with care. In particular, avoid changing the attributes of a
database handle created via connect_cached() because it will affect
other code that may be using the same handle.
Where multiple separate parts of a program are using con-
nect_cached() to connect to the same database with the same (ini-
tial) attributes it is a good idea to add a private attribute to
the connect_cached() call to effectively limit the scope of the
caching. For example:
DBI->connect_cached(..., { private_foo_cachekey => "Bar", ... });
Handles returned from that connect_cached() call will only be
returned by other connect_cached() call elsewhere in the code if
those other calls also pass in the same attribute values, including
the private one. (I've used "private_foo_cachekey" here as an
example, you can use any attribute name with a "private_" prefix.)
Taking that one step further, you can limit a particular con-
nect_cached() call to return handles unique to that one place in
the code by setting the private attribute to a unique value for
that place:
DBI->connect_cached(..., { private_foo_cachekey => __FILE__.__LINE__, ... });
By using a private attribute you still get connection caching for
the individual calls to connect_cached() but, by making separate
database conections for separate parts of the code, the database
handles are isolated from any attribute changes made to other han-
dles.
The cache can be accessed (and cleared) via the "CachedKids"
attribute:
my $CachedKids_hashref = $dbh->{Driver}->{CachedKids};
%$CachedKids_hashref = () if $CachedKids_hashref;
"available_drivers"
@ary = DBI->available_drivers;
@ary = DBI->available_drivers($quiet);
Returns a list of all available drivers by searching for "DBD::*"
modules through the directories in @INC. By default, a warning is
given if some drivers are hidden by others of the same name in ear-
lier directories. Passing a true value for $quiet will inhibit the
warning.
"installed_drivers"
%drivers = DBI->installed_drivers();
Returns a list of driver name and driver handle pairs for all
installed drivers. The driver name does not include the 'DBD::'
prefix. Added in DBI 1.49.
"installed_versions"
DBI->installed_versions;
@ary = DBI->installed_versions;
%hash = DBI->installed_versions;
Calls available_drivers() and attempts to load each of them in turn
using install_driver(). For each load that succeeds the driver
name and version number are added to a hash. When running under
DBI::PurePerl drivers which appear not be pure-perl are ignored.
When called in array context the list of successfully loaded driv-
ers is returned (without the 'DBD::' prefix).
When called in scalar context a reference to the hash is returned
and the hash will also contain other entries for the "DBI" version,
"OS" name, etc.
When called in a void context the installed_versions() method will
print out a formatted list of the hash contents, one per line.
Due to the potentially high memory cost and unknown risks of load-
ing in an unknown number of drivers that just happen to be
installed on the system, this method is nor recommended for general
use. Use available_drivers() instead.
The installed_versions() method is primarily intended as a quick
way to see from the command line what's installed. For example:
perl -MDBI -e 'DBI->installed_versions'
The installed_versions() method was added in DBI 1.38.
"data_sources"
@ary = DBI->data_sources($driver);
@ary = DBI->data_sources($driver, \%attr);
Returns a list of data sources (databases) available via the named
driver. If $driver is empty or "undef", then the value of the
"DBI_DRIVER" environment variable is used.
The driver will be loaded if it hasn't been already. Note that if
the driver loading fails then data_sources() dies with an error
message that includes the string ""install_driver"" and the under-
lying problem.
Data sources are returned in a form suitable for passing to the
"connect" method (that is, they will include the ""dbi:$driver:""
prefix).
Note that many drivers have no way of knowing what data sources
might be available for it. These drivers return an empty or incom-
plete list or may require driver-specific attributes.
There is also a data_sources() method defined for database handles.
"trace"
DBI->trace($trace_setting)
DBI->trace($trace_setting, $trace_filename)
$trace_setting = DBI->trace;
The "DBI->trace" method sets the global default trace settings and
returns the previous trace settings. It can also be used to change
where the trace output is sent.
There's a similar method, "$h->trace", which sets the trace set-
tings for the specific handle it's called on.
See the "TRACING" section for full details about the DBI's powerful
tracing facilities.
DBI Utility Functions
In addition to the DBI methods listed in the previous section, the DBI
package also provides several utility functions.
These can be imported into your code by listing them in the "use"
statement. For example:
use DBI qw(neat data_diff);
Alternatively, all these utility functions (except hash) can be
imported using the ":utils" import tag. For example:
use DBI qw(:utils);
"data_string_desc"
$description = data_string_desc($string);
Returns an informal description of the string. For example:
UTF8 off, ASCII, 42 characters 42 bytes
UTF8 off, non-ASCII, 42 characters 42 bytes
UTF8 on, non-ASCII, 4 characters 6 bytes
UTF8 on but INVALID encoding, non-ASCII, 4 characters 6 bytes
UTF8 off, undef
The initial "UTF8" on/off refers to Perl's internal SvUTF8 flag.
If $string has the SvUTF8 flag set but the sequence of bytes it
contains are not a valid UTF-8 encoding then data_string_desc()
will report "UTF8 on but INVALID encoding".
The "ASCII" vs "non-ASCII" portion shows "ASCII" if all the charac-
ters in the string are ASCII (have code points <= 127).
The data_string_desc() function was added in DBI 1.46.
"data_string_diff"
$diff = data_string_diff($a, $b);
Returns an informal description of the first character difference
between the strings. If both $a and $b contain the same sequence of
characters then data_string_diff() returns an empty string. For
example:
Params a & b Result
------------ ------
'aaa', 'aaa' ''
'aaa', 'abc' 'Strings differ at index 2: a[2]=a, b[2]=b'
'aaa', undef 'String b is undef, string a has 3 characters'
'aaa', 'aa' 'String b truncated after 2 characters'
Unicode characters are reported in "\x{XXXX}" format. Unicode code
points in the range U+0800 to U+08FF are unassigned and most likely
to occur due to double-encoding. Characters in this range are
reported as "\x{08XX}='C'" where "C" is the corresponding latin-1
character.
The data_string_diff() function only considers logical characters
and not the underlying encoding. See "data_diff" for an alterna-
tive.
The data_string_diff() function was added in DBI 1.46.
"data_diff"
$diff = data_diff($a, $b);
$diff = data_diff($a, $b, $logical);
Returns an informal description of the difference between two
strings. It calls "data_string_desc" and "data_string_diff" and
returns the combined results as a multi-line string.
For example, "data_diff("abc", "ab\x{263a}")" will return:
a: UTF8 off, ASCII, 3 characters 3 bytes
b: UTF8 on, non-ASCII, 3 characters 5 bytes
Strings differ at index 2: a[2]=c, b[2]=\x{263A}
If $a and $b are identical in both the characters they contain and
their physical encoding then data_diff() returns an empty string.
If $logical is true then physical encoding differences are ignored
(but are still reported if there is a difference in the charac-
ters).
The data_diff() function was added in DBI 1.46.
"neat"
$str = neat($value);
$str = neat($value, $maxlen);
Return a string containing a neat (and tidy) representation of the
supplied value.
Strings will be quoted, although internal quotes will not be
escaped. Values known to be numeric will be unquoted. Undefined
(NULL) values will be shown as "undef" (without quotes).
If the string is flagged internally as utf8 then double quotes will
be used, otherwise single quotes are used and unprintable charac-
ters will be replaced by dot (.).
For result strings longer than $maxlen the result string will be
truncated to "$maxlen-4" and ""...'"" will be appended. If $maxlen
is 0 or "undef", it defaults to $DBI::neat_maxlen which, in turn,
defaults to 400.
This function is designed to format values for human consumption.
It is used internally by the DBI for "trace" output. It should typ-
ically not be used for formatting values for database use. (See
also "quote".)
"neat_list"
$str = neat_list(\@listref, $maxlen, $field_sep);
Calls "neat" on each element of the list and returns a string con-
taining the results joined with $field_sep. $field_sep defaults to
", ".
"looks_like_number"
@bool = looks_like_number(@array);
Returns true for each element that looks like a number. Returns
false for each element that does not look like a number. Returns
"undef" for each element that is undefined or empty.
"hash"
$hash_value = DBI::hash($buffer, $type);
Return a 32-bit integer 'hash' value corresponding to the contents
of $buffer. The $type parameter selects which kind of hash algo-
rithm should be used.
For the technically curious, type 0 (which is the default if $type
isn't specified) is based on the Perl 5.1 hash except that the
value is forced to be negative (for obscure historical reasons).
Type 1 is the better "Fowler / Noll / Vo" (FNV) hash. See
<http://www.isthe.com/chongo/tech/comp/fnv/> for more information.
Both types are implemented in C and are very fast.
This function doesn't have much to do with databases, except that
it can be handy to store hash values in a database.
DBI Dynamic Attributes
Dynamic attributes are always associated with the last handle used
(that handle is represented by $h in the descriptions below).
Where an attribute is equivalent to a method call, then refer to the
method call for all related documentation.
Warning: these attributes are provided as a convenience but they do
have limitations. Specifically, they have a short lifespan: because
they are associated with the last handle used, they should only be used
immediately after calling the method that "sets" them. If in any
doubt, use the corresponding method call.
$DBI::err
Equivalent to "$h->err".
$DBI::errstr
Equivalent to "$h->errstr".
$DBI::state
Equivalent to "$h->state".
$DBI::rows
Equivalent to "$h->rows". Please refer to the documentation for the
"rows" method.
$DBI::lasth
Returns the DBI object handle used for the most recent DBI method
call. If the last DBI method call was a DESTROY then $DBI::lasth
will return the handle of the parent of the destroyed handle, if
there is one.
METHODS COMMON TO ALL HANDLES
The following methods can be used by all types of DBI handles.
"err"
$rv = $h->err;
Returns the native database engine error code from the last driver
method called. The code is typically an integer but you should not
assume that.
The DBI resets $h->err to undef before almost all DBI method calls,
so the value only has a short lifespan. Also, for most drivers, the
statement handles share the same error variable as the parent data-
base handle, so calling a method on one handle may reset the error
on the related handles.
(Methods which don't reset err before being called include err()
and errstr(), obviously, state(), rows(), func(), trace(),
trace_msg(), ping(), and the tied hash attribute FETCH() and
STORE() methods.)
If you need to test for specific error conditions and have your
program be portable to different database engines, then you'll need
to determine what the corresponding error codes are for all those
engines and test for all of them.
A driver may return 0 from err() to indicate a warning condition
after a method call. Similarly, a driver may return an empty string
to indicate a 'success with information' condition. In both these
cases the value is false but not undef. The errstr() and state()
methods may be used to retrieve extra information in these cases.
See "set_err" for more information.
"errstr"
$str = $h->errstr;
Returns the native database engine error message from the last DBI
method called. This has the same lifespan issues as the "err"
method described above.
The returned string may contain multiple messages separated by new-
line characters.
The errstr() method should not be used to test for errors, use
err() for that, because drivers may return 'success with informa-
tion' or warning messages via errstr() for methods that have not
'failed'.
See "set_err" for more information.
"state"
$str = $h->state;
Returns a state code in the standard SQLSTATE five character for-
mat. Note that the specific success code 00000 is translated to
any empty string (false). If the driver does not support SQLSTATE
(and most don't), then state will return "S1000" (General Error)
for all errors.
The driver is free to return any value via "state", e.g., warning
codes, even if it has not declared an error by returning a true
value via the "err" method described above.
The state() method should not be used to test for errors, use err()
for that, because drivers may return a 'success with information'
or warning state code via errstr() for methods that have not
'failed'.
"set_err"
$rv = $h->set_err($err, $errstr);
$rv = $h->set_err($err, $errstr, $state);
$rv = $h->set_err($err, $errstr, $state, $method);
$rv = $h->set_err($err, $errstr, $state, $method, $rv);
Set the "err", "errstr", and "state" values for the handle. This
method is typically only used by DBI drivers and DBI subclasses.
If the "HandleSetErr" attribute holds a reference to a subroutine
it is called first. The subroutine can alter the $err, $errstr,
$state, and $method values. See "HandleSetErr" for full details.
If the subroutine returns a true value then the handle "err",
"errstr", and "state" values are not altered and set_err() returns
an empty list (it normally returns $rv which defaults to undef, see
below).
Setting "err" to a true value indicates an error and will trigger
the normal DBI error handling mechanisms, such as "RaiseError" and
"HandleError", if they are enabled, when execution returns from the
DBI back to the application.
Setting "err" to "" indicates an 'information' state, and setting
it to "0" indicates a 'warning' state. Setting "err" to "undef"
also sets "errstr" to undef, and "state" to "", irrespective of the
values of the $errstr and $state parameters.
The $method parameter provides an alternate method name for the
"RaiseError"/"PrintError"/"PrintWarn" error string instead of the
fairly unhelpful '"set_err"'.
The "set_err" method normally returns undef. The $rv parameter
provides an alternate return value.
Some special rules apply if the "err" or "errstr" values for the
handle are already set...
If "errstr" is true then: "" [err was %s now %s]"" is appended if
$err is true and "err" is already true; "" [state was %s now %s]""
is appended if $state is true and "state" is already true; then
""\n"" and the new $errstr are appended. Obviously the %s's above
are replaced by the corresponding values.
The handle "err" value is set to $err if: $err is true; or handle
"err" value is undef; or $err is defined and the length is greater
than the handle "err" length. The effect is that an 'information'
state only overrides undef; a 'warning' overrides undef or 'infor-
mation', and an 'error' state overrides anything.
The handle "state" value is set to $state if $state is true and the
handle "err" value was set (by the rules above).
Support for warning and information states was added in DBI 1.41.
"trace"
$h->trace($trace_settings);
$h->trace($trace_settings, $trace_filename);
$trace_settings = $h->trace;
The trace() method is used to alter the trace settings for a handle
(and any future children of that handle). It can also be used to
change where the trace output is sent.
There's a similar method, "DBI->trace", which sets the global
default trace settings.
See the "TRACING" section for full details about the DBI's powerful
tracing facilities.
"trace_msg"
$h->trace_msg($message_text);
$h->trace_msg($message_text, $min_level);
Writes $message_text to the trace file if the trace level is
greater than or equal to $min_level (which defaults to 1). Can
also be called as "DBI->trace_msg($msg)".
See "TRACING" for more details.
"func"
$h->func(@func_arguments, $func_name) or die ...;
The "func" method can be used to call private non-standard and non-
portable methods implemented by the driver. Note that the function
name is given as the last argument.
It's also important to note that the func() method does not clear a
previous error ($DBI::err etc.) and it does not trigger automatic
error detection (RaiseError etc.) so you must check the return sta-
tus and/or $h->err to detect errors.
(This method is not directly related to calling stored procedures.
Calling stored procedures is currently not defined by the DBI.
Some drivers, such as DBD::Oracle, support it in non-portable ways.
See driver documentation for more details.)
See also "install_method" for how you can avoid needing to use
func() and gain.
"can"
$is_implemented = $h->can($method_name);
Returns true if $method_name is implemented by the driver or a
default method is provided by the DBI. It returns false where a
driver hasn't implemented a method and the default method is pro-
vided by the DBI is just an empty stub.
"parse_trace_flags"
$trace_settings_integer = $h->parse_trace_flags($trace_settings);
Parses a string containing trace settings and returns the corre-
sponding integer value used internally by the DBI and drivers.
The $trace_settings argument is a string containing a trace level
between 0 and 15 and/or trace flag names separated by vertical bar
(""|"") or comma ("","") characters. For example: "SQL|3|foo".
It uses the parse_trace_flag() method, described below, to process
the individual trage flag names.
The parse_trace_flags() method was added in DBI 1.42.
"parse_trace_flag"
$bit_flag = $h->parse_trace_flag($trace_flag_name);
Returns the bit flag corresponding to the trace flag name in
$trace_flag_name. Drivers are expected to override this method and
check if $trace_flag_name is a driver specific trace flags and, if
not, then call the DBIs default parse_trace_flag().
The parse_trace_flag() method was added in DBI 1.42.
"swap_inner_handle"
$rc = $h1->swap_inner_handle( $h2 );
$rc = $h1->swap_inner_handle( $h2, $allow_reparent );
Brain transplants for handles. You don't need to know about this
unless you want to become a handle surgeon.
A DBI handle is a reference to a tied hash. A tied hash has an
inner hash that actually holds the contents. The swap_inner_han-
dle() method swaps the inner hashes between two handles. The $h1
and $h2 handles still point to the same tied hashes, but what those
hashes are tied to has been swapped. In effect $h1 becomes $h2 and
vice-versa. This is powerful stuff. Use with care.
As a small safety measure, the two handles, $h1 and $h2, have to
share the same parent unless $allow_reparent is true.
The swap_inner_handle() method was added in DBI 1.44.
ATTRIBUTES COMMON TO ALL HANDLES
These attributes are common to all types of DBI handles.
Some attributes are inherited by child handles. That is, the value of
an inherited attribute in a newly created statement handle is the same
as the value in the parent database handle. Changes to attributes in
the new statement handle do not affect the parent database handle and
changes to the database handle do not affect existing statement han-
dles, only future ones.
Attempting to set or get the value of an unknown attribute generates a
warning, except for private driver specific attributes (which all have
names starting with a lowercase letter).
Example:
$h->{AttributeName} = ...; # set/write
... = $h->{AttributeName}; # get/read
"Warn" (boolean, inherited)
The "Warn" attribute enables useful warnings for certain bad prac-
tices. It is enabled by default and should only be disabled in rare
circumstances. Since warnings are generated using the Perl "warn"
function, they can be intercepted using the Perl $SIG{__WARN__}
hook.
The "Warn" attribute is not related to the "PrintWarn" attribute.
"Active" (boolean, read-only)
The "Active" attribute is true if the handle object is "active".
This is rarely used in applications. The exact meaning of active is
somewhat vague at the moment. For a database handle it typically
means that the handle is connected to a database ("$dbh->discon-
nect" sets "Active" off). For a statement handle it typically
means that the handle is a "SELECT" that may have more data to
fetch. (Fetching all the data or calling "$sth->finish" sets
"Active" off.)
"Executed" (boolean)
The "Executed" attribute is true if the handle object has been
"executed". Currently only the $dbh do() method and the $sth exe-
cute(), execute_array(), and execute_for_fetch() methods set the
"Executed" attribute.
When it's set on a handle it is also set on the parent handle at
the same time. So calling execute() on a $sth also sets the "Exe-
cuted" attribute on the parent $dbh.
The "Executed" attribute for a database handle is cleared by the
commit() and rollback() methods. The "Executed" attribute of a
statement handle is not cleared by the DBI under any circumstances
and so acts as a permanent record of whether the statement handle
was ever used.
The "Executed" attribute was added in DBI 1.41.
"Kids" (integer, read-only)
For a driver handle, "Kids" is the number of currently existing
database handles that were created from that driver handle. For a
database handle, "Kids" is the number of currently existing state-
ment handles that were created from that database handle. For a
statement handle, the value is zero.
"ActiveKids" (integer, read-only)
Like "Kids", but only counting those that are "Active" (as above).
"CachedKids" (hash ref)
For a database handle, "CachedKids" returns a reference to the
cache (hash) of statement handles created by the "prepare_cached"
method. For a driver handle, returns a reference to the cache
(hash) of database handles created by the "connect_cached" method.
"Type" (scalar)
The "Type" attribute identifies the type of a DBI handle. Returns
"dr" for driver handles, "db" for database handles and "st" for
statement handles.
"ChildHandles" (array ref)
The ChildHandles attribute contains a reference to an array of all
the handles created by this handle which are still accessible. The
contents of the array are weak-refs and will become undef when the
handle goes out of scope. "ChildHandles" returns undef if your
perl version does not support weak references (check the
Scalar::Util module). The referenced array returned should be
treated as read-only.
For example, to enumerate all driver handles, database handles and
statement handles:
sub show_child_handles {
my ($h, $level) = @_;
$level ||= 0;
printf "%sh %s %s\n", $h->{Type}, "\t" x $level, $h;
show_child_handles($_, $level + 1)
for (grep { defined } @{$h->{ChildHandles}});
}
my %drivers = DBI->installed_drivers();
show_child_handles($_) for (values %drivers);
"CompatMode" (boolean, inherited)
The "CompatMode" attribute is used by emulation layers (such as
Oraperl) to enable compatible behaviour in the underlying driver
(e.g., DBD::Oracle) for this handle. Not normally set by applica-
tion code.
It also has the effect of disabling the 'quick FETCH' of attribute
values from the handles attribute cache. So all attribute values
are handled by the drivers own FETCH method. This makes them
slightly slower but is useful for special-purpose drivers like
DBD::Multiplex.
"InactiveDestroy" (boolean)
The default value, false, means a handle will be fully destroyed as
normal when the last reference to it is removed, just as you'd
expect.
If set true then the handle will be treated by the DESTROY as if it
was no longer Active, and so the database engine related effects of
DESTROYing a handle will be skipped.
Think of the name as meaning 'treat the handle as not-Active in the
DESTROY method'.
For a database handle, this attribute does not disable an explicit
call to the disconnect method, only the implicit call from DESTROY
that happens if the handle is still marked as "Active".
This attribute is specifically designed for use in Unix applica-
tions that "fork" child processes. Either the parent or the child
process, but not both, should set "InactiveDestroy" true on all
their shared handles. (Note that some databases, including Oracle,
don't support passing a database connection across a fork.)
To help tracing applications using fork the process id is shown in
the trace log whenever a DBI or handle trace() method is called.
The process id also shown for every method call if the DBI trace
level (not handle trace level) is set high enough to show the trace
from the DBI's method dispatcher, e.g. >= 9.
"PrintWarn" (boolean, inherited)
The "PrintWarn" attribute controls the printing of warnings
recorded by the driver. When set to a true value the DBI will
check method calls to see if a warning condition has been set. If
so, the DBI will effectively do a "warn("$class $method warning:
$DBI::errstr")" where $class is the driver class and $method is the
name of the method which failed. E.g.,
DBD::Oracle::db execute warning: ... warning text here ...
By default, "DBI->connect" sets "PrintWarn" "on" if $^W is true,
i.e., perl is running with warnings enabled.
If desired, the warnings can be caught and processed using a
$SIG{__WARN__} handler or modules like CGI::Carp and CGI::Error-
Wrap.
See also "set_err" for how warnings are recorded and "HandleSetErr"
for how to influence it.
Fetching the full details of warnings can require an extra round-
trip to the database server for some drivers. In which case the
driver may opt to only fetch the full details of warnings if the
"PrintWarn" attribute is true. If "PrintWarn" is false then these
drivers should still indicate the fact that there were warnings by
setting the warning string to, for example: "3 warnings".
"PrintError" (boolean, inherited)
The "PrintError" attribute can be used to force errors to generate
warnings (using "warn") in addition to returning error codes in the
normal way. When set "on", any method which results in an error
occuring will cause the DBI to effectively do a "warn("$class
$method failed: $DBI::errstr")" where $class is the driver class
and $method is the name of the method which failed. E.g.,
DBD::Oracle::db prepare failed: ... error text here ...
By default, "DBI->connect" sets "PrintError" "on".
If desired, the warnings can be caught and processed using a
$SIG{__WARN__} handler or modules like CGI::Carp and CGI::Error-
Wrap.
"RaiseError" (boolean, inherited)
The "RaiseError" attribute can be used to force errors to raise
exceptions rather than simply return error codes in the normal way.
It is "off" by default. When set "on", any method which results in
an error will cause the DBI to effectively do a "die("$class
$method failed: $DBI::errstr")", where $class is the driver class
and $method is the name of the method that failed. E.g.,
DBD::Oracle::db prepare failed: ... error text here ...
If you turn "RaiseError" on then you'd normally turn "PrintError"
off. If "PrintError" is also on, then the "PrintError" is done
first (naturally).
Typically "RaiseError" is used in conjunction with "eval { ... }"
to catch the exception that's been thrown and followed by an "if
($@) { ... }" block to handle the caught exception. For example:
eval {
...
$sth->execute();
...
};
if ($@) {
# $sth->err and $DBI::err will be true if error was from DBI
warn $@; # print the error
... # do whatever you need to deal with the error
}
In that eval block the $DBI::lasth variable can be useful for diag-
nosis and reporting if you can't be sure which handle triggered the
error. For example, $DBI::lasth->{Type} and $DBI::lasth->{State-
ment}.
See also "Transactions".
If you want to temporarily turn "RaiseError" off (inside a library
function that is likely to fail, for example), the recommended way
is like this:
{
local $h->{RaiseError}; # localize and turn off for this block
...
}
The original value will automatically and reliably be restored by
Perl, regardless of how the block is exited. The same logic
applies to other attributes, including "PrintError".
"HandleError" (code ref, inherited)
The "HandleError" attribute can be used to provide your own alter-
native behaviour in case of errors. If set to a reference to a sub-
routine then that subroutine is called when an error is detected
(at the same point that "RaiseError" and "PrintError" are handled).
The subroutine is called with three parameters: the error message
string that "RaiseError" and "PrintError" would use, the DBI handle
being used, and the first value being returned by the method that
failed (typically undef).
If the subroutine returns a false value then the "RaiseError"
and/or "PrintError" attributes are checked and acted upon as nor-
mal.
For example, to "die" with a full stack trace for any error:
use Carp;
$h->{HandleError} = sub { confess(shift) };
Or to turn errors into exceptions:
use Exception; # or your own favourite exception module
$h->{HandleError} = sub { Exception->new('DBI')->raise($_[0]) };
It is possible to 'stack' multiple HandleError handlers by using
closures:
sub your_subroutine {
my $previous_handler = $h->{HandleError};
$h->{HandleError} = sub {
return 1 if $previous_handler and &$previous_handler(@_);
... your code here ...
};
}
Using a "my" inside a subroutine to store the previous "HandleEr-
ror" value is important. See perlsub and perlref for more informa-
tion about closures.
It is possible for "HandleError" to alter the error message that
will be used by "RaiseError" and "PrintError" if it returns false.
It can do that by altering the value of $_[0]. This example appends
a stack trace to all errors and, unlike the previous example using
Carp::confess, this will work "PrintError" as well as "RaiseError":
$h->{HandleError} = sub { $_[0]=Carp::longmess($_[0]); 0; };
It is also possible for "HandleError" to hide an error, to a lim-
ited degree, by using "set_err" to reset $DBI::err and
$DBI::errstr, and altering the return value of the failed method.
For example:
$h->{HandleError} = sub {
return 0 unless $_[0] =~ /^\S+ fetchrow_arrayref failed:/;
return 0 unless $_[1]->err == 1234; # the error to 'hide'
$h->set_err(undef,undef); # turn off the error
$_[2] = [ ... ]; # supply alternative return value
return 1;
};
This only works for methods which return a single value and is hard
to make reliable (avoiding infinite loops, for example) and so
isn't recommended for general use! If you find a good use for it
then please let me know.
"HandleSetErr" (code ref, inherited)
The "HandleSetErr" attribute can be used to intercept the setting
of handle "err", "errstr", and "state" values. If set to a refer-
ence to a subroutine then that subroutine is called whenever
set_err() is called, typically by the driver or a subclass.
The subroutine is called with five arguments, the first five that
were passed to set_err(): the handle, the "err", "errstr", and
"state" values being set, and the method name. These can be altered
by changing the values in the @_ array. The return value affects
set_err() behaviour, see "set_err" for details.
It is possible to 'stack' multiple HandleSetErr handlers by using
closures. See "HandleError" for an example.
The "HandleSetErr" and "HandleError" subroutines differ in subtle
but significant ways. HandleError is only invoked at the point
where the DBI is about to return to the application with "err" set
true. It's not invoked by the failure of a method that's been
called by another DBI method. HandleSetErr, on the other hand, is
called whenever set_err() is called with a defined "err" value,
even if false. So it's not just for errors, despite the name, but
also warn and info states. The set_err() method, and thus Handle-
SetErr, may be called multiple times within a method and is usually
invoked from deep within driver code.
In theory a driver can use the return value from HandleSetErr via
set_err() to decide whether to continue or not. If set_err()
returns an empty list, indicating that the HandleSetErr code has
'handled' the 'error', the driver could then continue instead of
failing (if that's a reasonable thing to do). This isn't excepted
to be common and any such cases should be clearly marked in the
driver documentation and discussed on the dbi-dev mailing list.
The "HandleSetErr" attribute was added in DBI 1.41.
"ErrCount" (unsigned integer)
The "ErrCount" attribute is incremented whenever the set_err()
method records an error. It isn't incremented by warnings or infor-
mation states. It is not reset by the DBI at any time.
The "ErrCount" attribute was added in DBI 1.41. Older drivers may
not have been updated to use set_err() to record errors and so this
attribute may not be incremented when using them.
"ShowErrorStatement" (boolean, inherited)
The "ShowErrorStatement" attribute can be used to cause the rele-
vant Statement text to be appended to the error messages generated
by the "RaiseError", "PrintError", and "PrintWarn" attributes.
Only applies to errors on statement handles plus the prepare(),
do(), and the various "select*()" database handle methods. (The
exact format of the appended text is subject to change.)
If "$h->{ParamValues}" returns a hash reference of parameter
(placeholder) values then those are formatted and appended to the
end of the Statement text in the error message.
"TraceLevel" (integer, inherited)
The "TraceLevel" attribute can be used as an alternative to the
"trace" method to set the DBI trace level and trace flags for a
specific handle. See "TRACING" for more details.
The "TraceLevel" attribute is especially useful combined with
"local" to alter the trace settings for just a single block of
code.
"FetchHashKeyName" (string, inherited)
The "FetchHashKeyName" attribute is used to specify whether the
fetchrow_hashref() method should perform case conversion on the
field names used for the hash keys. For historical reasons it
defaults to '"NAME"' but it is recommended to set it to '"NAME_lc"'
(convert to lower case) or '"NAME_uc"' (convert to upper case)
according to your preference. It can only be set for driver and
database handles. For statement handles the value is frozen when
prepare() is called.
"ChopBlanks" (boolean, inherited)
The "ChopBlanks" attribute can be used to control the trimming of
trailing space characters from fixed width character (CHAR) fields.
No other field types are affected, even where field values have
trailing spaces.
The default is false (although it is possible that the default may
change). Applications that need specific behaviour should set the
attribute as needed.
Drivers are not required to support this attribute, but any driver
which does not support it must arrange to return "undef" as the
attribute value.
"LongReadLen" (unsigned integer, inherited)
The "LongReadLen" attribute may be used to control the maximum
length of 'long' type fields (LONG, BLOB, CLOB, MEMO, etc.) which
the driver will read from the database automatically when it
fetches each row of data.
The "LongReadLen" attribute only relates to fetching and reading
long values; it is not involved in inserting or updating them.
A value of 0 means not to automatically fetch any long data. Driv-
ers may return undef or an empty string for long fields when "Lon-
gReadLen" is 0.
The default is typically 0 (zero) bytes but may vary between driv-
ers. Applications fetching long fields should set this value to
slightly larger than the longest long field value to be fetched.
Some databases return some long types encoded as pairs of hex dig-
its. For these types, "LongReadLen" relates to the underlying data
length and not the doubled-up length of the encoded string.
Changing the value of "LongReadLen" for a statement handle after it
has been "prepare"'d will typically have no effect, so it's common
to set "LongReadLen" on the $dbh before calling "prepare".
For most drivers the value used here has a direct effect on the
memory used by the statement handle while it's active, so don't be
too generous. If you can't be sure what value to use you could exe-
cute an extra select statement to determine the longest value. For
example:
$dbh->{LongReadLen} = $dbh->selectrow_array(qq{
SELECT MAX(OCTET_LENGTH(long_column_name))
FROM table WHERE ...
});
$sth = $dbh->prepare(qq{
SELECT long_column_name, ... FROM table WHERE ...
});
You may need to take extra care if the table can be modified
between the first select and the second being executed. You may
also need to use a different function if OCTET_LENGTH() does not
work for long types in your database. For example, for Sybase use
DATALENGTH() and for Oracle use LENGTHB().
See also "LongTruncOk" for information on truncation of long types.
"LongTruncOk" (boolean, inherited)
The "LongTruncOk" attribute may be used to control the effect of
fetching a long field value which has been truncated (typically
because it's longer than the value of the "LongReadLen" attribute).
By default, "LongTruncOk" is false and so fetching a long value
that needs to be truncated will cause the fetch to fail. (Applica-
tions should always be sure to check for errors after a fetch loop
in case an error, such as a divide by zero or long field trunca-
tion, caused the fetch to terminate prematurely.)
If a fetch fails due to a long field truncation when "LongTruncOk"
is false, many drivers will allow you to continue fetching further
rows.
See also "LongReadLen".
"TaintIn" (boolean, inherited)
If the "TaintIn" attribute is set to a true value and Perl is run-
ning in taint mode (e.g., started with the "-T" option), then all
the arguments to most DBI method calls are checked for being
tainted. This may change.
The attribute defaults to off, even if Perl is in taint mode. See
perlsec for more about taint mode. If Perl is not running in taint
mode, this attribute has no effect.
When fetching data that you trust you can turn off the TaintIn
attribute, for that statement handle, for the duration of the fetch
loop.
The "TaintIn" attribute was added in DBI 1.31.
"TaintOut" (boolean, inherited)
If the "TaintOut" attribute is set to a true value and Perl is run-
ning in taint mode (e.g., started with the "-T" option), then most
data fetched from the database is considered tainted. This may
change.
The attribute defaults to off, even if Perl is in taint mode. See
perlsec for more about taint mode. If Perl is not running in taint
mode, this attribute has no effect.
When fetching data that you trust you can turn off the TaintOut
attribute, for that statement handle, for the duration of the fetch
loop.
Currently only fetched data is tainted. It is possible that the
results of other DBI method calls, and the value of fetched
attributes, may also be tainted in future versions. That change may
well break your applications unless you take great care now. If you
use DBI Taint mode, please report your experience and any sugges-
tions for changes.
The "TaintOut" attribute was added in DBI 1.31.
"Taint" (boolean, inherited)
The "Taint" attribute is a shortcut for "TaintIn" and "TaintOut"
(it is also present for backwards compatibility).
Setting this attribute sets both "TaintIn" and "TaintOut", and
retrieving it returns a true value if and only if "TaintIn" and
"TaintOut" are both set to true values.
"Profile" (inherited)
The "Profile" attribute enables the collection and reporting of
method call timing statistics. See the DBI::Profile module docu-
mentation for much more detail.
The "Profile" attribute was added in DBI 1.24.
"private_your_module_name_*"
The DBI provides a way to store extra information in a DBI handle
as "private" attributes. The DBI will allow you to store and
retrieve any attribute which has a name starting with ""private_"".
It is strongly recommended that you use just one private attribute
(e.g., use a hash ref) and give it a long and unambiguous name that
includes the module or application name that the attribute relates
to (e.g., ""private_YourFullModuleName_thingy"").
Because of the way the Perl tie mechanism works you cannot reliably
use the "||=" operator directly to initialise the attribute, like
this:
my $foo = $dbh->{private_yourmodname_foo} ||= { ... }; # WRONG
you should use a two step approach like this:
my $foo = $dbh->{private_yourmodname_foo};
$foo ||= $dbh->{private_yourmodname_foo} = { ... };
This attribute is primarily of interest to people sub-classing DBI.
DBI DATABASE HANDLE OBJECTS
This section covers the methods and attributes associated with database
handles.
Database Handle Methods
The following methods are specified for DBI database handles:
"clone"
$new_dbh = $dbh->clone();
$new_dbh = $dbh->clone(\%attr);
The "clone" method duplicates the $dbh connection by connecting
with the same parameters ($dsn, $user, $password) as originally
used.
The attributes for the cloned connect are the same as those used
for the original connect, with some other attribute merged over
them depending on the \%attr parameter.
If \%attr is given then the attributes it contains are merged into
the original attributes and override any with the same names.
Effectively the same as doing:
%attribues_used = ( %original_attributes, %attr );
If \%attr is not given then it defaults to a hash containing all
the attributes in the attribute cache of $dbh excluding any non-
code references, plus the main boolean attributes (RaiseError,
PrintError, AutoCommit, etc.). This behaviour is subject to change.
The clone method can be used even if the database handle is discon-
nected.
The "clone" method was added in DBI 1.33. It is very new and likely
to change.
"data_sources"
@ary = $dbh->data_sources();
@ary = $dbh->data_sources(\%attr);
Returns a list of data sources (databases) available via the $dbh
driver's data_sources() method, plus any extra data sources that
the driver can discover via the connected $dbh. Typically the extra
data sources are other databases managed by the same server process
that the $dbh is connected to.
Data sources are returned in a form suitable for passing to the
"connect" method (that is, they will include the ""dbi:$driver:""
prefix).
The data_sources() method, for a $dbh, was added in DBI 1.38.
"do"
$rows = $dbh->do($statement) or die $dbh->errstr;
$rows = $dbh->do($statement, \%attr) or die $dbh->errstr;
$rows = $dbh->do($statement, \%attr, @bind_values) or die ...
Prepare and execute a single statement. Returns the number of rows
affected or "undef" on error. A return value of "-1" means the num-
ber of rows is not known, not applicable, or not available.
This method is typically most useful for non-"SELECT" statements
that either cannot be prepared in advance (due to a limitation of
the driver) or do not need to be executed repeatedly. It should not
be used for "SELECT" statements because it does not return a state-
ment handle (so you can't fetch any data).
The default "do" method is logically similar to:
sub do {
my($dbh, $statement, $attr, @bind_values) = @_;
my $sth = $dbh->prepare($statement, $attr) or return undef;
$sth->execute(@bind_values) or return undef;
my $rows = $sth->rows;
($rows == 0) ? "0E0" : $rows; # always return true if no error
}
For example:
my $rows_deleted = $dbh->do(q{
DELETE FROM table
WHERE status = ?
}, undef, 'DONE') or die $dbh->errstr;
Using placeholders and @bind_values with the "do" method can be
useful because it avoids the need to correctly quote any variables
in the $statement. But if you'll be executing the statement many
times then it's more efficient to "prepare" it once and call "exe-
cute" many times instead.
The "q{...}" style quoting used in this example avoids clashing
with quotes that may be used in the SQL statement. Use the double-
quote-like "qq{...}" operator if you want to interpolate variables
into the string. See "Quote and Quote-like Operators" in perlop
for more details.
"last_insert_id"
$rv = $dbh->last_insert_id($catalog, $schema, $table, $field);
$rv = $dbh->last_insert_id($catalog, $schema, $table, $field, \%attr);
Returns a value 'identifying' the row just inserted, if possible.
Typically this would be a value assigned by the database server to
a column with an auto_increment or serial type. Returns undef if
the driver does not support the method or can't determine the
value.
The $catalog, $schema, $table, and $field parameters may be
required for some drivers (see below). If you don't know the
parameter values and your driver does not need them, then use
"undef" for each.
There are several caveats to be aware of with this method if you
want to use it for portable applications:
* For some drivers the value may only available immediately after
the insert statement has executed (e.g., mysql, Informix).
* For some drivers the $catalog, $schema, $table, and $field param-
eters are required, for others they are ignored (e.g., mysql).
* Drivers may return an indeterminate value if no insert has been
performed yet.
* For some drivers the value may only be available if placeholders
have not been used (e.g., Sybase, MS SQL). In this case the value
returned would be from the last non-placeholder insert statement.
* Some drivers may need driver-specific hints about how to get the
value. For example, being told the name of the database 'sequence'
object that holds the value. Any such hints are passed as driver-
specific attributes in the \%attr parameter.
* If the underlying database offers nothing better, then some driv-
ers may attempt to implement this method by executing ""select
max($field) from $table"". Drivers using any approach like this
should issue a warning if "AutoCommit" is true because it is gener-
ally unsafe - another process may have modified the table between
your insert and the select. For situations where you know it is
safe, such as when you have locked the table, you can silence the
warning by passing "Warn" => 0 in \%attr.
* If no insert has been performed yet, or the last insert failed,
then the value is implementation defined.
Given all the caveats above, it's clear that this method must be
used with care.
The "last_insert_id" method was added in DBI 1.38.
"selectrow_array"
@row_ary = $dbh->selectrow_array($statement);
@row_ary = $dbh->selectrow_array($statement, \%attr);
@row_ary = $dbh->selectrow_array($statement, \%attr, @bind_values);
This utility method combines "prepare", "execute" and
"fetchrow_array" into a single call. If called in a list context,
it returns the first row of data from the statement. The $state-
ment parameter can be a previously prepared statement handle, in
which case the "prepare" is skipped.
If any method fails, and "RaiseError" is not set, "selectrow_array"
will return an empty list.
If called in a scalar context for a statement handle that has more
than one column, it is undefined whether the driver will return the
value of the first column or the last. So don't do that. Also, in
a scalar context, an "undef" is returned if there are no more rows
or if an error occurred. That "undef" can't be distinguished from
an "undef" returned because the first field value was NULL. For
these reasons you should exercise some caution if you use "selec-
trow_array" in a scalar context, or just don't do that.
"selectrow_arrayref"
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectrow_arrayref($statement);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectrow_arrayref($statement, \%attr);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectrow_arrayref($statement, \%attr, @bind_values);
This utility method combines "prepare", "execute" and
"fetchrow_arrayref" into a single call. It returns the first row of
data from the statement. The $statement parameter can be a previ-
ously prepared statement handle, in which case the "prepare" is
skipped.
If any method fails, and "RaiseError" is not set, "selectrow_array"
will return undef.
"selectrow_hashref"
$hash_ref = $dbh->selectrow_hashref($statement);
$hash_ref = $dbh->selectrow_hashref($statement, \%attr);
$hash_ref = $dbh->selectrow_hashref($statement, \%attr, @bind_values);
This utility method combines "prepare", "execute" and
"fetchrow_hashref" into a single call. It returns the first row of
data from the statement. The $statement parameter can be a previ-
ously prepared statement handle, in which case the "prepare" is
skipped.
If any method fails, and "RaiseError" is not set, "selec-
trow_hashref" will return undef.
"selectall_arrayref"
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectall_arrayref($statement);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectall_arrayref($statement, \%attr);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectall_arrayref($statement, \%attr, @bind_values);
This utility method combines "prepare", "execute" and
"fetchall_arrayref" into a single call. It returns a reference to
an array containing a reference to an array (or hash, see below)
for each row of data fetched.
The $statement parameter can be a previously prepared statement
handle, in which case the "prepare" is skipped. This is recommended
if the statement is going to be executed many times.
If "RaiseError" is not set and any method except
"fetchall_arrayref" fails then "selectall_arrayref" will return
"undef"; if "fetchall_arrayref" fails then it will return with
whatever data has been fetched thus far. You should check
"$sth->err" afterwards (or use the "RaiseError" attribute) to dis-
cover if the data is complete or was truncated due to an error.
The "fetchall_arrayref" method called by "selectall_arrayref" sup-
ports a $max_rows parameter. You can specify a value for $max_rows
by including a '"MaxRows"' attribute in \%attr. In which case fin-
ish() is called for you after fetchall_arrayref() returns.
The "fetchall_arrayref" method called by "selectall_arrayref" also
supports a $slice parameter. You can specify a value for $slice by
including a '"Slice"' or '"Columns"' attribute in \%attr. The only
difference between the two is that if "Slice" is not defined and
"Columns" is an array ref, then the array is assumed to contain
column index values (which count from 1), rather than perl array
index values. In which case the array is copied and each value
decremented before passing to "/fetchall_arrayref".
You may often want to fetch an array of rows where each row is
stored as a hash. That can be done simple using:
my $emps = $dbh->selectall_arrayref(
"SELECT ename FROM emp ORDER BY ename",
{ Slice => {} }
);
foreach my $emp ( @$emps ) {
print "Employee: $emp->{ename}\n";
}
See "fetchall_arrayref" method for more details.
"selectall_hashref"
$hash_ref = $dbh->selectall_hashref($statement, $key_field);
$hash_ref = $dbh->selectall_hashref($statement, $key_field, \%attr);
$hash_ref = $dbh->selectall_hashref($statement, $key_field, \%attr, @bind_values);
This utility method combines "prepare", "execute" and
"fetchall_hashref" into a single call. It returns a reference to a
hash containing one entry, at most, for each row, as returned by
fetchall_hashref().
The $statement parameter can be a previously prepared statement
handle, in which case the "prepare" is skipped. This is recom-
mended if the statement is going to be executed many times.
The $key_field parameter defines which column, or columns, are used
as keys in the returned hash. It can either be the name of a single
field, or a reference to an array containing multiple field names.
Using multiple names yields a tree of nested hashes.
If a row has the same key as an earlier row then it replaces the
earlier row.
If any method except "fetchrow_hashref" fails, and "RaiseError" is
not set, "selectall_hashref" will return "undef". If
"fetchrow_hashref" fails and "RaiseError" is not set, then it will
return with whatever data it has fetched thus far. $DBI::err should
be checked to catch that.
See fetchall_hashref() for more details.
"selectcol_arrayref"
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectcol_arrayref($statement);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectcol_arrayref($statement, \%attr);
$ary_ref = $dbh->selectcol_arrayref($statement, \%attr, @bind_values);
This utility method combines "prepare", "execute", and fetching one
column from all the rows, into a single call. It returns a refer-
ence to an array containing the values of the first column from
each row.
The $statement parameter can be a previously prepared statement
handle, in which case the "prepare" is skipped. This is recommended
if the statement is going to be executed many times.
If any method except "fetch" fails, and "RaiseError" is not set,
"selectcol_arrayref" will return "undef". If "fetch" fails and
"RaiseError" is not set, then it will return with whatever data it
has fetched thus far. $DBI::err should be checked to catch that.
The "selectcol_arrayref" method defaults to pushing a single column
value (the first) from each row into the result array. However, it
can also push another column, or even multiple columns per row,
into the result array. This behaviour can be specified via a '"Col-
umns"' attribute which must be a ref to an array containing the
column number or numbers to use. For example:
# get array of id and name pairs:
my $ary_ref = $dbh->selectcol_arrayref("select id, name from table", { Columns=>[1,2] });
my %hash = @$ary_ref; # build hash from key-value pairs so $hash{$id} => name
You can specify a maximum number of rows to fetch by including a
'"MaxRows"' attribute in \%attr.
"prepare"
$sth = $dbh->prepare($statement) or die $dbh->errstr;
$sth = $dbh->prepare($statement, \%attr) or die $dbh->errstr;
Prepares a statement for later execution by the database engine and
returns a reference to a statement handle object.
The returned statement handle can be used to get attributes of the
statement and invoke the "execute" method. See "Statement Handle
Methods".
Drivers for engines without the concept of preparing a statement
will typically just store the statement in the returned handle and
process it when "$sth->execute" is called. Such drivers are
unlikely to give much useful information about the statement, such
as "$sth->{NUM_OF_FIELDS}", until after "$sth->execute" has been
called. Portable applications should take this into account.
In general, DBI drivers do not parse the contents of the statement
(other than simply counting any "Placeholders"). The statement is
passed directly to the database engine, sometimes known as pass-
thru mode. This has advantages and disadvantages. On the plus side,
you can access all the functionality of the engine being used. On
the downside, you're limited if you're using a simple engine, and
you need to take extra care if writing applications intended to be
portable between engines.
Portable applications should not assume that a new statement can be
prepared and/or executed while still fetching results from a previ-
ous statement.
Some command-line SQL tools use statement terminators, like a semi-
colon, to indicate the end of a statement. Such terminators should
not normally be used with the DBI.
"prepare_cached"
$sth = $dbh->prepare_cached($statement)
$sth = $dbh->prepare_cached($statement, \%attr)
$sth = $dbh->prepare_cached($statement, \%attr, $if_active)
Like "prepare" except that the statement handle returned will be
stored in a hash associated with the $dbh. If another call is made
to "prepare_cached" with the same $statement and %attr parameter
values, then the corresponding cached $sth will be returned without
contacting the database server.
The $if_active parameter lets you adjust the behaviour if an
already cached statement handle is still Active. There are several
alternatives:
0: A warning will be generated, and finish() will be called on the
statement handle before it is returned. This is the default behav-
iour if $if_active is not passed.
1: finish() will be called on the statement handle, but the warning
is suppressed.
2: Disables any checking.
3: The existing active statement handle will be removed from the
cache and a new statement handle prepared and cached in its place.
This is the safest option because it doesn't affect the state of
the old handle, it just removes it from the cache. [Added in DBI
1.40]
Here are some examples of "prepare_cached":
sub insert_hash {
my ($table, $field_values) = @_;
# sort to keep field order, and thus sql, stable for prepare_cached
my @fields = sort keys %$field_values;
my @values = @{$field_values}{@fields};
my $sql = sprintf "insert into %s (%s) values (%s)",
$table, join(",", @fields), join(",", ("?")x@fields);
my $sth = $dbh->prepare_cached($sql);
return $sth->execute(@values);
}
sub search_hash {
my ($table, $field_values) = @_;
# sort to keep field order, and thus sql, stable for prepare_cached
my @fields = sort keys %$field_values;
my @values = @{$field_values}{@fields};
my $qualifier = "";
$qualifier = "where ".join(" and ", map { "$_=?" } @fields) if @fields;
$sth = $dbh->prepare_cached("SELECT * FROM $table $qualifier");
return $dbh->selectall_arrayref($sth, {}, @values);
}
Caveat emptor: This caching can be useful in some applications, but
it can also cause problems and should be used with care. Here is a
contrived case where caching would cause a significant problem:
my $sth = $dbh->prepare_cached('SELECT * FROM foo WHERE bar=?');
$sth->execute(...);
while (my $data = $sth->fetchrow_hashref) {
# later, in some other code called within the loop...
my $sth2 = $dbh->prepare_cached('SELECT * FROM foo WHERE bar=?');
$sth2->execute(...);
while (my $data2 = $sth2->fetchrow_arrayref) {
do_stuff(...);
}
}
In this example, since both handles are preparing the exact same
statement, $sth2 will not be its own statement handle, but a dupli-
cate of $sth returned from the cache. The results will certainly
not be what you expect. Typically the the inner fetch loop will
work normally, fetching all the records and terminating when there
are no more, but now $sth is the same as $sth2 the outer fetch loop
will also terminate.
You'll know if you run into this problem because prepare_cached()
will generate a warning by default (when $if_active is false).
The cache used by prepare_cached() is keyed by both the statement
and any attributes so you can also avoid this issue by doing some-
thing like:
$sth = $dbh->prepare_cached("...", { dbi_dummy => __FILE__.__LINE__ });
which will ensure that prepare_cached only returns statements
cached by that line of code in that source file.
"commit"
$rc = $dbh->commit or die $dbh->errstr;
Commit (make permanent) the most recent series of database changes
if the database supports transactions and AutoCommit is off.
If "AutoCommit" is on, then calling "commit" will issue a "commit
ineffective with AutoCommit" warning.
See also "Transactions" in the "FURTHER INFORMATION" section below.
"rollback"
$rc = $dbh->rollback or die $dbh->errstr;
Rollback (undo) the most recent series of uncommitted database
changes if the database supports transactions and AutoCommit is
off.
If "AutoCommit" is on, then calling "rollback" will issue a "roll-
back ineffective with AutoCommit" warning.
See also "Transactions" in the "FURTHER INFORMATION" section below.
"begin_work"
$rc = $dbh->begin_work or die $dbh->errstr;
Enable transactions (by turning "AutoCommit" off) until the next
call to "commit" or "rollback". After the next "commit" or "roll-
back", "AutoCommit" will automatically be turned on again.
If "AutoCommit" is already off when "begin_work" is called then it
does nothing except return an error. If the driver does not support
transactions then when "begin_work" attempts to set "AutoCommit"
off the driver will trigger a fatal error.
See also "Transactions" in the "FURTHER INFORMATION" section below.
"disconnect"
$rc = $dbh->disconnect or warn $dbh->errstr;
Disconnects the database from the database handle. "disconnect" is
typically only used before exiting the program. The handle is of
little use after disconnecting.
The transaction behaviour of the "disconnect" method is, sadly,
undefined. Some database systems (such as Oracle and Ingres) will
automatically commit any outstanding changes, but others (such as
Informix) will rollback any outstanding changes. Applications not
using "AutoCommit" should explicitly call "commit" or "rollback"
before calling "disconnect".
The database is automatically disconnected by the "DESTROY" method
if still connected when there are no longer any references to the
handle. The "DESTROY" method for each driver should implicitly
call "rollback" to undo any uncommitted changes. This is vital be-
haviour to ensure that incomplete transactions don't get committed
simply because Perl calls "DESTROY" on every object before exiting.
Also, do not rely on the order of object destruction during "global
destruction", as it is undefined.
Generally, if you want your changes to be commited or rolled back
when you disconnect, then you should explicitly call "commit" or
"rollback" before disconnecting.
If you disconnect from a database while you still have active
statement handles (e.g., SELECT statement handles that may have
more data to fetch), you will get a warning. The warning may indi-
cate that a fetch loop terminated early, perhaps due to an uncaught
error. To avoid the warning call the "finish" method on the active
handles.
"ping"
$rc = $dbh->ping;
Attempts to determine, in a reasonably efficient way, if the data-
base server is still running and the connection to it is still
working. Individual drivers should implement this function in the
most suitable manner for their database engine.
The current default implementation always returns true without
actually doing anything. Actually, it returns ""0 but true"" which
is true but zero. That way you can tell if the return value is gen-
uine or just the default. Drivers should override this method with
one that does the right thing for their type of database.
Few applications would have direct use for this method. See the
specialized Apache::DBI module for one example usage.
"get_info"
$value = $dbh->get_info( $info_type );
Returns information about the implementation, i.e. driver and data
source capabilities, restrictions etc. It returns "undef" for
unknown or unimplemented information types. For example:
$database_version = $dbh->get_info( 18 ); # SQL_DBMS_VER
$max_select_tables = $dbh->get_info( 106 ); # SQL_MAXIMUM_TABLES_IN_SELECT
See "Standards Reference Information" for more detailed information
about the information types and their meanings and possible return
values.
The DBI::Const::GetInfoType module exports a %GetInfoType hash that
can be used to map info type names to numbers. For example:
$database_version = $dbh->get_info( $GetInfoType{SQL_DBMS_VER} );
The names are a merging of the ANSI and ODBC standards (which dif-
fer in some cases). See DBI::Const::GetInfoType for more details.
Because some DBI methods make use of get_info(), drivers are
strongly encouraged to support at least the following very minimal
set of information types to ensure the DBI itself works properly:
Type Name Example A Example B
---- -------------------------- ------------ ----------------
17 SQL_DBMS_NAME 'ACCESS' 'Oracle'
18 SQL_DBMS_VER '03.50.0000' '08.01.0721 ...'
29 SQL_IDENTIFIER_QUOTE_CHAR '`' '"'
41 SQL_CATALOG_NAME_SEPARATOR '.' '@'
114 SQL_CATALOG_LOCATION 1 2
"table_info"
$sth = $dbh->table_info( $catalog, $schema, $table, $type );
$sth = $dbh->table_info( $catalog, $schema, $table, $type, \%attr );
Returns an active statement handle that can be used to fetch infor-
mation about tables and views that exist in the database.
The arguments $catalog, $schema and $table may accept search pat-
terns according to the database/driver, for example: $table =
'%FOO%'; Remember that the underscore character ('"_"') is a search
pattern that means match any character, so 'FOO_%' is the same as
'FOO%' and 'FOO_BAR%' will match names like 'FOO1BAR'.
The value of $type is a comma-separated list of one or more types
of tables to be returned in the result set. Each value may option-
ally be quoted, e.g.:
$type = "TABLE";
$type = "'TABLE','VIEW'";
In addition the following special cases may also be supported by
some drivers:
* If the value of $catalog is '%' and $schema and $table name are
empty strings, the result set contains a list of catalog names. For
example:
$sth = $dbh->table_info('%', '', '');
* If the value of $schema is '%' and $catalog and $table are empty
strings, the result set contains a list of schema names.
* If the value of $type is '%' and $catalog, $schema, and $table
are all empty strings, the result set contains a list of table
types.
If your driver doesn't support one or more of the selection filter
parameters then you may get back more than you asked for and can do
the filtering yourself.
This method can be expensive, and can return a large amount of
data. (For example, small Oracle installation returns over 2000
rows.) So it's a good idea to use the filters to limit the data as
much as possible.
The statement handle returned has at least the following fields in
the order show below. Other fields, after these, may also be
present.
TABLE_CAT: Table catalog identifier. This field is NULL ("undef")
if not applicable to the data source, which is usually the case.
This field is empty if not applicable to the table.
TABLE_SCHEM: The name of the schema containing the TABLE_NAME
value. This field is NULL ("undef") if not applicable to data
source, and empty if not applicable to the table.
TABLE_NAME: Name of the table (or view, synonym, etc).
TABLE_TYPE: One of the following: "TABLE", "VIEW", "SYSTEM TABLE",
"GLOBAL TEMPORARY", "LOCAL TEMPORARY", "ALIAS", "SYNONYM" or a type
identifier that is specific to the data source.
REMARKS: A description of the table. May be NULL ("undef").
Note that "table_info" might not return records for all tables.
Applications can use any valid table regardless of whether it's
returned by "table_info".
See also "tables", "Catalog Methods" and "Standards Reference
Information".
"column_info"
$sth = $dbh->column_info( $catalog, $schema, $table, $column );
Returns an active statement handle that can be used to fetch infor-
mation about columns in specified tables.
The arguments $schema, $table and $column may accept search pat-
terns according to the database/driver, for example: $table =
'%FOO%';
Note: The support for the selection criteria is driver specific. If
the driver doesn't support one or more of them then you may get
back more than you asked for and can do the filtering yourself.
The statement handle returned has at least the following fields in
the order shown below. Other fields, after these, may also be
present.
TABLE_CAT: The catalog identifier. This field is NULL ("undef") if
not applicable to the data source, which is often the case. This
field is empty if not applicable to the table.
TABLE_SCHEM: The schema identifier. This field is NULL ("undef")
if not applicable to the data source, and empty if not applicable
to the table.
TABLE_NAME: The table identifier. Note: A driver may provide col-
umn metadata not only for base tables, but also for derived objects
like SYNONYMS etc.
COLUMN_NAME: The column identifier.
DATA_TYPE: The concise data type code.
TYPE_NAME: A data source dependent data type name.
COLUMN_SIZE: The column size. This is the maximum length in char-
acters for character data types, the number of digits or bits for
numeric data types or the length in the representation of temporal
types. See the relevant specifications for detailed information.
BUFFER_LENGTH: The length in bytes of transferred data.
DECIMAL_DIGITS: The total number of significant digits to the right
of the decimal point.
NUM_PREC_RADIX: The radix for numeric precision. The value is 10
or 2 for numeric data types and NULL ("undef") if not applicable.
NULLABLE: Indicates if a column can accept NULLs. The following
values are defined:
SQL_NO_NULLS 0
SQL_NULLABLE 1
SQL_NULLABLE_UNKNOWN 2
REMARKS: A description of the column.
COLUMN_DEF: The default value of the column.
SQL_DATA_TYPE: The SQL data type.
SQL_DATETIME_SUB: The subtype code for datetime and interval data
types.
CHAR_OCTET_LENGTH: The maximum length in bytes of a character or
binary data type column.
ORDINAL_POSITION: The column sequence number (starting with 1).
IS_NULLABLE: Indicates if the column can accept NULLs. Possible
values are: 'NO', 'YES' and ''.
SQL/CLI defines the following additional columns:
CHAR_SET_CAT
CHAR_SET_SCHEM
CHAR_SET_NAME
COLLATION_CAT
COLLATION_SCHEM
COLLATION_NAME
UDT_CAT
UDT_SCHEM
UDT_NAME
DOMAIN_CAT
DOMAIN_SCHEM
DOMAIN_NAME
SCOPE_CAT
SCOPE_SCHEM
SCOPE_NAME
MAX_CARDINALITY
DTD_IDENTIFIER
IS_SELF_REF
Drivers capable of supplying any of those values should do so in
the corresponding column and supply undef values for the others.
Drivers wishing to provide extra database/driver specific informa-
tion should do so in extra columns beyond all those listed above,
and use lowercase field names with the driver-specific prefix
(i.e., 'ora_...'). Applications accessing such fields should do so
by name and not by column number.
The result set is ordered by TABLE_CAT, TABLE_SCHEM, TABLE_NAME and
ORDINAL_POSITION.
Note: There is some overlap with statement attributes (in perl) and
SQLDescribeCol (in ODBC). However, SQLColumns provides more meta-
data.
See also "Catalog Methods" and "Standards Reference Information".
"primary_key_info"
$sth = $dbh->primary_key_info( $catalog, $schema, $table );
Returns an active statement handle that can be used to fetch infor-
mation about columns that make up the primary key for a table. The
arguments don't accept search patterns (unlike table_info()).
For example:
$sth = $dbh->primary_key_info( undef, $user, 'foo' );
$data = $sth->fetchall_arrayref;
The statement handle will return one row per column, ordered by TA-
BLE_CAT, TABLE_SCHEM, TABLE_NAME, and KEY_SEQ. If there is no pri-
mary key then the statement handle will fetch no rows.
Note: The support for the selection criteria, such as $catalog, is
driver specific. If the driver doesn't support catalogs and/or
schemas, it may ignore these criteria.
The statement handle returned has at least the following fields in
the order shown below. Other fields, after these, may also be
present.
TABLE_CAT: The catalog identifier. This field is NULL ("undef") if
not applicable to the data source, which is often the case. This
field is empty if not applicable to the table.
TABLE_SCHEM: The schema identifier. This field is NULL ("undef")
if not applicable to the data source, and empty if not applicable
to the table.
TABLE_NAME: The table identifier.
COLUMN_NAME: The column identifier.
KEY_SEQ: The column sequence number (starting with 1). Note: This
field is named ORDINAL_POSITION in SQL/CLI.
PK_NAME: The primary key constraint identifier. This field is NULL
("undef") if not applicable to the data source.
See also "Catalog Methods" and "Standards Reference Information".
"primary_key"
@key_column_names = $dbh->primary_key( $catalog, $schema, $table );
Simple interface to the primary_key_info() method. Returns a list
of the column names that comprise the primary key of the specified
table. The list is in primary key column sequence order. If there
is no primary key then an empty list is returned.
"foreign_key_info"
$sth = $dbh->foreign_key_info( $pk_catalog, $pk_schema, $pk_table
, $fk_catalog, $fk_schema, $fk_table );
$sth = $dbh->foreign_key_info( $pk_catalog, $pk_schema, $pk_table
, $fk_catalog, $fk_schema, $fk_table
, \%attr );
Returns an active statement handle that can be used to fetch infor-
mation about foreign keys in and/or referencing the specified ta-
ble(s). The arguments don't accept search patterns (unlike ta-
ble_info()).
$pk_catalog, $pk_schema, $pk_table identify the primary (unique)
key table (PKT).
$fk_catalog, $fk_schema, $fk_table identify the foreign key table
(FKT).
If both PKT and FKT are given, the function returns the foreign
key, if any, in table FKT that refers to the primary (unique) key
of table PKT. (Note: In SQL/CLI, the result is implementa-
tion-defined.)
If only PKT is given, then the result set contains the primary key
of that table and all foreign keys that refer to it.
If only FKT is given, then the result set contains all foreign keys
in that table and the primary keys to which they refer. (Note: In
SQL/CLI, the result includes unique keys too.)
For example:
$sth = $dbh->foreign_key_info( undef, $user, 'master');
$sth = $dbh->foreign_key_info( undef, undef, undef , undef, $user, 'detail');
$sth = $dbh->foreign_key_info( undef, $user, 'master', undef, $user, 'detail');
Note: The support for the selection criteria, such as $catalog, is
driver specific. If the driver doesn't support catalogs and/or
schemas, it may ignore these criteria.
The statement handle returned has the following fields in the order
shown below. Because ODBC never includes unique keys, they define
different columns in the result set than SQL/CLI. SQL/CLI column
names are shown in parentheses.
PKTABLE_CAT ( UK_TABLE_CAT ): The primary (unique) key ta-
ble catalog identifier. This field is NULL ("undef") if not appli-
cable to the data source, which is often the case. This field is
empty if not applicable to the table.
PKTABLE_SCHEM ( UK_TABLE_SCHEM ): The primary (unique) key ta-
ble schema identifier. This field is NULL ("undef") if not appli-
cable to the data source, and empty if not applicable to the table.
PKTABLE_NAME ( UK_TABLE_NAME ): The primary (unique) key ta-
ble identifier.
PKCOLUMN_NAME (UK_COLUMN_NAME ): The primary (unique) key col-
umn identifier.
FKTABLE_CAT ( FK_TABLE_CAT ): The foreign key table catalog
identifier. This field is NULL ("undef") if not applicable to the
data source, which is often the case. This field is empty if not
applicable to the table.
FKTABLE_SCHEM ( FK_TABLE_SCHEM ): The foreign key table schema
identifier. This field is NULL ("undef") if not applicable to the
data source, and empty if not applicable to the table.
FKTABLE_NAME ( FK_TABLE_NAME ): The foreign key table identi-
fier.
FKCOLUMN_NAME ( FK_COLUMN_NAME ): The foreign key column iden-
tifier.
KEY_SEQ ( ORDINAL_POSITION ): The column sequence number
(starting with 1).
UPDATE_RULE ( UPDATE_RULE ): The referential action for
the UPDATE rule. The following codes are defined:
CASCADE 0
RESTRICT 1
SET NULL 2
NO ACTION 3
SET DEFAULT 4
DELETE_RULE ( DELETE_RULE ): The referential action for
the DELETE rule. The codes are the same as for UPDATE_RULE.
FK_NAME ( FK_NAME ): The foreign key name.
PK_NAME ( UK_NAME ): The primary (unique) key
name.
DEFERRABILITY ( DEFERABILITY ): The deferrability of the for-
eign key constraint. The following codes are defined:
INITIALLY DEFERRED 5
INITIALLY IMMEDIATE 6
NOT DEFERRABLE 7
( UNIQUE_OR_PRIMARY ): This column is necessary if a
driver includes all candidate (i.e. primary and alternate) keys in
the result set (as specified by SQL/CLI). The value of this column
is UNIQUE if the foreign key references an alternate key and PRI-
MARY if the foreign key references a primary key, or it may be
undefined if the driver doesn't have access to the information.
See also "Catalog Methods" and "Standards Reference Information".
"tables"
@names = $dbh->tables( $catalog, $schema, $table, $type );
@names = $dbh->tables; # deprecated
Simple interface to table_info(). Returns a list of matching table
names, possibly including a catalog/schema prefix.
See "table_info" for a description of the parameters.
If "$dbh->get_info(29)" returns true (29 is SQL_IDENTI-
FIER_QUOTE_CHAR) then the table names are constructed and quoted by
"quote_identifier" to ensure they are usable even if they contain
whitespace or reserved words etc. This means that the table names
returned will include quote characters.
"type_info_all"
$type_info_all = $dbh->type_info_all;
Returns a reference to an array which holds information about each
data type variant supported by the database and driver. The array
and its contents should be treated as read-only.
The first item is a reference to an 'index' hash of "Name =">
"Index" pairs. The items following that are references to arrays,
one per supported data type variant. The leading index hash defines
the names and order of the fields within the arrays that follow it.
For example:
$type_info_all = [
{ TYPE_NAME => 0,
DATA_TYPE => 1,
COLUMN_SIZE => 2, # was PRECISION originally
LITERAL_PREFIX => 3,
LITERAL_SUFFIX => 4,
CREATE_PARAMS => 5,
NULLABLE => 6,
CASE_SENSITIVE => 7,
SEARCHABLE => 8,
UNSIGNED_ATTRIBUTE=> 9,
FIXED_PREC_SCALE => 10, # was MONEY originally
AUTO_UNIQUE_VALUE => 11, # was AUTO_INCREMENT originally
LOCAL_TYPE_NAME => 12,
MINIMUM_SCALE => 13,
MAXIMUM_SCALE => 14,
SQL_DATA_TYPE => 15,
SQL_DATETIME_SUB => 16,
NUM_PREC_RADIX => 17,
INTERVAL_PRECISION=> 18,
},
[ 'VARCHAR', SQL_VARCHAR,
undef, "'","'", undef,0, 1,1,0,0,0,undef,1,255, undef
],
[ 'INTEGER', SQL_INTEGER,
undef, "", "", undef,0, 0,1,0,0,0,undef,0, 0, 10
],
];
More than one row may have the same value in the "DATA_TYPE" field
if there are different ways to spell the type name and/or there are
variants of the type with different attributes (e.g., with and
without "AUTO_UNIQUE_VALUE" set, with and without
"UNSIGNED_ATTRIBUTE", etc).
The rows are ordered by "DATA_TYPE" first and then by how closely
each type maps to the corresponding ODBC SQL data type, closest
first.
The meaning of the fields is described in the documentation for the
"type_info" method.
An 'index' hash is provided so you don't need to rely on index val-
ues defined above. However, using DBD::ODBC with some old ODBC
drivers may return older names, shown as comments in the example
above. Another issue with the index hash is that the lettercase of
the keys is not defined. It is usually uppercase, as show here, but
drivers may return names with any lettercase.
Drivers are also free to return extra driver-specific columns of
information - though it's recommended that they start at column
index 50 to leave room for expansion of the DBI/ODBC specification.
The type_info_all() method is not normally used directly. The
"type_info" method provides a more usable and useful interface to
the data.
"type_info"
@type_info = $dbh->type_info($data_type);
Returns a list of hash references holding information about one or
more variants of $data_type. The list is ordered by "DATA_TYPE"
first and then by how closely each type maps to the corresponding
ODBC SQL data type, closest first. If called in a scalar context
then only the first (best) element is returned.
If $data_type is undefined or "SQL_ALL_TYPES", then the list will
contain hashes for all data type variants supported by the database
and driver.
If $data_type is an array reference then "type_info" returns the
information for the first type in the array that has any matches.
The keys of the hash follow the same letter case conventions as the
rest of the DBI (see "Naming Conventions and Name Space"). The fol-
lowing uppercase items should always exist, though may be undef:
TYPE_NAME (string)
Data type name for use in CREATE TABLE statements etc.
DATA_TYPE (integer)
SQL data type number.
COLUMN_SIZE (integer)
For numeric types, this is either the total number of digits
(if the NUM_PREC_RADIX value is 10) or the total number of bits
allowed in the column (if NUM_PREC_RADIX is 2).
For string types, this is the maximum size of the string in
characters.
For date and interval types, this is the maximum number of
characters needed to display the value.
LITERAL_PREFIX (string)
Characters used to prefix a literal. A typical prefix is ""'""
for characters, or possibly ""0x"" for binary values passed as
hexadecimal. NULL ("undef") is returned for data types for
which this is not applicable.
LITERAL_SUFFIX (string)
Characters used to suffix a literal. Typically ""'"" for char-
acters. NULL ("undef") is returned for data types where this
is not applicable.
CREATE_PARAMS (string)
Parameter names for data type definition. For example, "CRE-
ATE_PARAMS" for a "DECIMAL" would be ""precision,scale"" if the
DECIMAL type should be declared as "DECIMAL("precision,scale")"
where precision and scale are integer values. For a "VARCHAR"
it would be ""max length"". NULL ("undef") is returned for
data types for which this is not applicable.
NULLABLE (integer)
Indicates whether the data type accepts a NULL value: 0 or an
empty string = no, 1 = yes, 2 = unknown.
CASE_SENSITIVE (boolean)
Indicates whether the data type is case sensitive in collations
and comparisons.
SEARCHABLE (integer)
Indicates how the data type can be used in a WHERE clause, as
follows:
0 - Cannot be used in a WHERE clause
1 - Only with a LIKE predicate
2 - All comparison operators except LIKE
3 - Can be used in a WHERE clause with any comparison operator
UNSIGNED_ATTRIBUTE (boolean)
Indicates whether the data type is unsigned. NULL ("undef") is
returned for data types for which this is not applicable.
FIXED_PREC_SCALE (boolean)
Indicates whether the data type always has the same precision
and scale (such as a money type). NULL ("undef") is returned
for data types for which this is not applicable.
AUTO_UNIQUE_VALUE (boolean)
Indicates whether a column of this data type is automatically
set to a unique value whenever a new row is inserted. NULL
("undef") is returned for data types for which this is not
applicable.
LOCAL_TYPE_NAME (string)
Localized version of the "TYPE_NAME" for use in dialog with
users. NULL ("undef") is returned if a localized name is not
available (in which case "TYPE_NAME" should be used).
MINIMUM_SCALE (integer)
The minimum scale of the data type. If a data type has a fixed
scale, then "MAXIMUM_SCALE" holds the same value. NULL
("undef") is returned for data types for which this is not
applicable.
MAXIMUM_SCALE (integer)
The maximum scale of the data type. If a data type has a fixed
scale, then "MINIMUM_SCALE" holds the same value. NULL
("undef") is returned for data types for which this is not
applicable.
SQL_DATA_TYPE (integer)
This column is the same as the "DATA_TYPE" column, except for
interval and datetime data types. For interval and datetime
data types, the "SQL_DATA_TYPE" field will return "SQL_INTER-
VAL" or "SQL_DATETIME", and the "SQL_DATETIME_SUB" field below
will return the subcode for the specific interval or datetime
data type. If this field is NULL, then the driver does not sup-
port or report on interval or datetime subtypes.
SQL_DATETIME_SUB (integer)
For interval or datetime data types, where the "SQL_DATA_TYPE"
field above is "SQL_INTERVAL" or "SQL_DATETIME", this field
will hold the subcode for the specific interval or datetime
data type. Otherwise it will be NULL ("undef").
Although not mentioned explicitly in the standards, it seems
there is a simple relationship between these values:
DATA_TYPE == (10 * SQL_DATA_TYPE) + SQL_DATETIME_SUB
NUM_PREC_RADIX (integer)
The radix value of the data type. For approximate numeric
types, "NUM_PREC_RADIX" contains the value 2 and "COLUMN_SIZE"
holds the number of bits. For exact numeric types,
"NUM_PREC_RADIX" contains the value 10 and "COLUMN_SIZE" holds
the number of decimal digits. NULL ("undef") is returned either
for data types for which this is not applicable or if the
driver cannot report this information.
INTERVAL_PRECISION (integer)
The interval leading precision for interval types. NULL is
returned either for data types for which this is not applicable
or if the driver cannot report this information.
For example, to find the type name for the fields in a select
statement you can do:
@names = map { scalar $dbh->type_info($_)->{TYPE_NAME} } @{ $sth->{TYPE} }
Since DBI and ODBC drivers vary in how they map their types into
the ISO standard types you may need to search for more than one
type. Here's an example looking for a usable type to store a date:
$my_date_type = $dbh->type_info( [ SQL_DATE, SQL_TIMESTAMP ] );
Similarly, to more reliably find a type to store small integers,
you could use a list starting with "SQL_SMALLINT", "SQL_INTEGER",
"SQL_DECIMAL", etc.
See also "Standards Reference Information".
"quote"
$sql = $dbh->quote($value);
$sql = $dbh->quote($value, $data_type);
Quote a string literal for use as a literal value in an SQL state-
ment, by escaping any special characters (such as quotation marks)
contained within the string and adding the required type of outer
quotation marks.
$sql = sprintf "SELECT foo FROM bar WHERE baz = %s",
$dbh->quote("Don't");
For most database types, quote would return 'Don''t' (including the
outer quotation marks).
An undefined $value value will be returned as the string "NULL"
(without single quotation marks) to match how NULLs are represented
in SQL.
If $data_type is supplied, it is used to try to determine the
required quoting behaviour by using the information returned by
"type_info". As a special case, the standard numeric types are
optimized to return $value without calling "type_info".
Quote will probably not be able to deal with all possible input
(such as binary data or data containing newlines), and is not
related in any way with escaping or quoting shell meta-characters.
It is valid for the quote() method to return an SQL expression that
evaluates to the desired string. For example:
$quoted = $dbh->quote("one\ntwo\0three")
may return something like:
CONCAT('one', CHAR(12), 'two', CHAR(0), 'three')
The quote() method should not be used with "Placeholders and Bind
Values".
"quote_identifier"
$sql = $dbh->quote_identifier( $name );
$sql = $dbh->quote_identifier( $catalog, $schema, $table, \%attr );
Quote an identifier (table name etc.) for use in an SQL statement,
by escaping any special characters (such as double quotation marks)
it contains and adding the required type of outer quotation marks.
Undefined names are ignored and the remainder are quoted and then
joined together, typically with a dot (".") character. For example:
$id = $dbh->quote_identifier( undef, 'Her schema', 'My table' );
would, for most database types, return "Her schema"."My table"
(including all the double quotation marks).
If three names are supplied then the first is assumed to be a cata-
log name and special rules may be applied based on what "get_info"
returns for SQL_CATALOG_NAME_SEPARATOR (41) and SQL_CATALOG_LOCA-
TION (114). For example, for Oracle:
$id = $dbh->quote_identifier( 'link', 'schema', 'table' );
would return "schema"."table"@"link".
"take_imp_data"
$imp_data = $dbh->take_imp_data;
Leaves the $dbh in an almost dead, zombie-like, state and returns a
binary string of raw implementation data from the driver which
describes the current database connection. Effectively it detaches
the underlying database API connection data from the DBI handle.
After calling take_imp_data(), all other methods except "DESTROY"
will generate a warning and return undef.
Why would you want to do this? You don't, forget I even mentioned
it. Unless, that is, you're implementing something advanced like a
multi-threaded connection pool. See DBI::Pool.
The returned $imp_data can be passed as a "dbi_imp_data" attribute
to a later connect() call, even in a separate thread in the same
process, where the driver can use it to 'adopt' the existing con-
nection that the implementation data was taken from.
Some things to keep in mind...
* the $imp_data holds the only reference to the underlying database
API connection data. That connection is still 'live' and won't be
cleaned up properly unless the $imp_data is used to create a new
$dbh which is then allowed to disconnect() normally.
* using the same $imp_data to create more than one other new $dbh
at a time may well lead to unpleasant problems. Don't do that.
Any child statement handles are effectively destroyed when
take_imp_data() is called.
The "take_imp_data" method was added in DBI 1.36 but wasn't useful
till 1.49.
Database Handle Attributes
This section describes attributes specific to database handles.
Changes to these database handle attributes do not affect any other
existing or future database handles.
Attempting to set or get the value of an unknown attribute generates a
warning, except for private driver-specific attributes (which all have
names starting with a lowercase letter).
Example:
$h->{AutoCommit} = ...; # set/write
... = $h->{AutoCommit}; # get/read
"AutoCommit" (boolean)
If true, then database changes cannot be rolled-back (undone). If
false, then database changes automatically occur within a "transac-
tion", which must either be committed or rolled back using the
"commit" or "rollback" methods.
Drivers should always default to "AutoCommit" mode (an unfortunate
choice largely forced on the DBI by ODBC and JDBC conventions.)
Attempting to set "AutoCommit" to an unsupported value is a fatal
error. This is an important feature of the DBI. Applications that
need full transaction behaviour can set "$dbh->{AutoCommit} = 0"
(or set "AutoCommit" to 0 via "connect") without having to check
that the value was assigned successfully.
For the purposes of this description, we can divide databases into
three categories:
Databases which don't support transactions at all.
Databases in which a transaction is always active.
Databases in which a transaction must be explicitly started (C<'BEGIN WORK'>).
* Databases which don't support transactions at all
For these databases, attempting to turn "AutoCommit" off is a fatal
error. "commit" and "rollback" both issue warnings about being
ineffective while "AutoCommit" is in effect.
* Databases in which a transaction is always active
These are typically mainstream commercial relational databases with
"ANSI standard" transaction behaviour. If "AutoCommit" is off,
then changes to the database won't have any lasting effect unless
"commit" is called (but see also "disconnect"). If "rollback" is
called then any changes since the last commit are undone.
If "AutoCommit" is on, then the effect is the same as if the DBI
called "commit" automatically after every successful database oper-
ation. So calling "commit" or "rollback" explicitly while "AutoCom-
mit" is on would be ineffective because the changes would have
already been commited.
Changing "AutoCommit" from off to on will trigger a "commit".
For databases which don't support a specific auto-commit mode, the
driver has to commit each statement automatically using an explicit
"COMMIT" after it completes successfully (and roll it back using an
explicit "ROLLBACK" if it fails). The error information reported
to the application will correspond to the statement which was exe-
cuted, unless it succeeded and the commit or rollback failed.
* Databases in which a transaction must be explicitly started
For these databases, the intention is to have them act like data-
bases in which a transaction is always active (as described above).
To do this, the driver will automatically begin an explicit trans-
action when "AutoCommit" is turned off, or after a "commit" or
"rollback" (or when the application issues the next database opera-
tion after one of those events).
In this way, the application does not have to treat these databases
as a special case.
See "commit", "disconnect" and "Transactions" for other important
notes about transactions.
"Driver" (handle)
Holds the handle of the parent driver. The only recommended use for
this is to find the name of the driver using:
$dbh->{Driver}->{Name}
"Name" (string)
Holds the "name" of the database. Usually (and recommended to be)
the same as the ""dbi:DriverName:..."" string used to connect to
the database, but with the leading ""dbi:DriverName:"" removed.
"Statement" (string, read-only)
Returns the statement string passed to the most recent "prepare"
method called in this database handle, even if that method failed.
This is especially useful where "RaiseError" is enabled and the
exception handler checks $@ and sees that a 'prepare' method call
failed.
"RowCacheSize" (integer)
A hint to the driver indicating the size of the local row cache
that the application would like the driver to use for future
"SELECT" statements. If a row cache is not implemented, then set-
ting "RowCacheSize" is ignored and getting the value returns
"undef".
Some "RowCacheSize" values have special meaning, as follows:
0 - Automatically determine a reasonable cache size for each C<SELECT>
1 - Disable the local row cache
>1 - Cache this many rows
<0 - Cache as many rows that will fit into this much memory for each C<SELECT>.
Note that large cache sizes may require a very large amount of mem-
ory (cached rows * maximum size of row). Also, a large cache will
cause a longer delay not only for the first fetch, but also when-
ever the cache needs refilling.
See also the "RowsInCache" statement handle attribute.
"Username" (string)
Returns the username used to connect to the database.
DBI STATEMENT HANDLE OBJECTS
This section lists the methods and attributes associated with DBI
statement handles.
Statement Handle Methods
The DBI defines the following methods for use on DBI statement handles:
"bind_param"
$sth->bind_param($p_num, $bind_value)
$sth->bind_param($p_num, $bind_value, \%attr)
$sth->bind_param($p_num, $bind_value, $bind_type)
The "bind_param" method takes a copy of $bind_value and associates
it (binds it) with a placeholder, identified by $p_num, embedded in
the prepared statement. Placeholders are indicated with question
mark character ("?"). For example:
$dbh->{RaiseError} = 1; # save having to check each method call
$sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT name, age FROM people WHERE name LIKE ?");
$sth->bind_param(1, "John%"); # placeholders are numbered from 1
$sth->execute;
DBI::dump_results($sth);
See "Placeholders and Bind Values" for more information.
Data Types for Placeholders
The "\%attr" parameter can be used to hint at the data type the
placeholder should have. This is rarely needed. Typically, the
driver is only interested in knowing if the placeholder should be
bound as a number or a string.
$sth->bind_param(1, $value, { TYPE => SQL_INTEGER });
As a short-cut for the common case, the data type can be passed
directly, in place of the "\%attr" hash reference. This example is
equivalent to the one above:
$sth->bind_param(1, $value, SQL_INTEGER);
The "TYPE" value indicates the standard (non-driver-specific) type
for this parameter. To specify the driver-specific type, the driver
may support a driver-specific attribute, such as "{ ora_type => 97
}".
The SQL_INTEGER and other related constants can be imported using
use DBI qw(:sql_types);
See "DBI Constants" for more information.
The data type for a placeholder cannot be changed after the first
"bind_param" call. In fact the whole \%attr parameter is 'sticky'
in the sense that a driver only needs to consider the \%attr param-
eter for the first call, for a given $sth and parameter. After that
the driver may ignore the \%attr parameter for that placeholder.
Perl only has string and number scalar data types. All database
types that aren't numbers are bound as strings and must be in a
format the database will understand except where the bind_param()
TYPE attribute specifies a type that implies a particular format.
For example, given:
$sth->bind_param(1, $value, SQL_DATETIME);
the driver should expect $value to be in the ODBC standard
SQL_DATETIME format, which is 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS'. Similarly for
SQL_DATE, SQL_TIME etc.
As an alternative to specifying the data type in the "bind_param"
call, you can let the driver pass the value as the default type
("VARCHAR"). You can then use an SQL function to convert the type
within the statement. For example:
INSERT INTO price(code, price) VALUES (?, CONVERT(MONEY,?))
The "CONVERT" function used here is just an example. The actual
function and syntax will vary between different databases and is
non-portable.
See also "Placeholders and Bind Values" for more information.
"bind_param_inout"
$rc = $sth->bind_param_inout($p_num, \$bind_value, $max_len) or die $sth->errstr;
$rv = $sth->bind_param_inout($p_num, \$bind_value, $max_len, \%attr) or ...
$rv = $sth->bind_param_inout($p_num, \$bind_value, $max_len, $bind_type) or ...
This method acts like "bind_param", but also enables values to be
updated by the statement. The statement is typically a call to a
stored procedure. The $bind_value must be passed as a reference to
the actual value to be used.
Note that unlike "bind_param", the $bind_value variable is not
copied when "bind_param_inout" is called. Instead, the value in the
variable is read at the time "execute" is called.
The additional $max_len parameter specifies the minimum amount of
memory to allocate to $bind_value for the new value. If the value
returned from the database is too big to fit, then the execution
should fail. If unsure what value to use, pick a generous length,
i.e., a length larger than the longest value that would ever be
returned. The only cost of using a larger value than needed is
wasted memory.
Undefined values or "undef" are used to indicate null values. See
also "Placeholders and Bind Values" for more information.
"bind_param_array"
$rc = $sth->bind_param_array($p_num, $array_ref_or_value)
$rc = $sth->bind_param_array($p_num, $array_ref_or_value, \%attr)
$rc = $sth->bind_param_array($p_num, $array_ref_or_value, $bind_type)
The "bind_param_array" method is used to bind an array of values to
a placeholder embedded in the prepared statement which is to be
executed with "execute_array". For example:
$dbh->{RaiseError} = 1; # save having to check each method call
$sth = $dbh->prepare("INSERT INTO staff (first_name, last_name, dept) VALUES(?, ?, ?)");
$sth->bind_param_array(1, [ 'John', 'Mary', 'Tim' ]);
$sth->bind_param_array(2, [ 'Booth', 'Todd', 'Robinson' ]);
$sth->bind_param_array(3, "SALES"); # scalar will be reused for each row
$sth->execute_array( { ArrayTupleStatus => \my @tuple_status } );
The %attr ($bind_type) argument is the same as defined for
"bind_param". Refer to "bind_param" for general details on using
placeholders.
(Note that bind_param_array() can not be used to expand a place-
holder into a list of values for a statement like "SELECT foo WHERE
bar IN (?)". A placeholder can only ever represent one value per
execution.)
Scalar values, including "undef", may also be bound by
"bind_param_array". In which case the same value will be used for
each "execute" call. Driver-specific implementations may behave
differently, e.g., when binding to a stored procedure call, some
databases may permit mixing scalars and arrays as arguments.
The default implementation provided by DBI (for drivers that have
not implemented array binding) is to iteratively call "execute" for
each parameter tuple provided in the bound arrays. Drivers may
provide more optimized implementations using whatever bulk opera-
tion support the database API provides. The default driver behav-
iour should match the default DBI behaviour, but always consult
your driver documentation as there may be driver specific issues to
consider.
Note that the default implementation currently only supports non-
data returning statements (INSERT, UPDATE, but not SELECT). Also,
"bind_param_array" and "bind_param" cannot be mixed in the same
statement execution, and "bind_param_array" must be used with "exe-
cute_array"; using "bind_param_array" will have no effect for "exe-
cute".
The "bind_param_array" method was added in DBI 1.22.
"execute"
$rv = $sth->execute or die $sth->errstr;
$rv = $sth->execute(@bind_values) or die $sth->errstr;
Perform whatever processing is necessary to execute the prepared
statement. An "undef" is returned if an error occurs. A success-
ful "execute" always returns true regardless of the number of rows
affected, even if it's zero (see below). It is always important to
check the return status of "execute" (and most other DBI methods)
for errors if you're not using "RaiseError".
For a non-"SELECT" statement, "execute" returns the number of rows
affected, if known. If no rows were affected, then "execute"
returns "0E0", which Perl will treat as 0 but will regard as true.
Note that it is not an error for no rows to be affected by a state-
ment. If the number of rows affected is not known, then "execute"
returns -1.
For "SELECT" statements, execute simply "starts" the query within
the database engine. Use one of the fetch methods to retrieve the
data after calling "execute". The "execute" method does not return
the number of rows that will be returned by the query (because most
databases can't tell in advance), it simply returns a true value.
You can tell if the statement was a "SELECT" statement by checking
if "$sth->{NUM_OF_FIELDS}" is greater than zero after calling "exe-
cute".
If any arguments are given, then "execute" will effectively call
"bind_param" for each value before executing the statement. Values
bound in this way are usually treated as "SQL_VARCHAR" types unless
the driver can determine the correct type (which is rare), or
unless "bind_param" (or "bind_param_inout") has already been used
to specify the type.
If execute() is called on a statement handle that's still active
($sth->{Active} is true) then it should effectively call finish()
to tidy up the previous execution results before starting this new
execution.
"execute_array"
$rv = $sth->execute_array(\%attr) or die $sth->errstr;
$rv = $sth->execute_array(\%attr, @bind_values) or die $sth->errstr;
Execute the prepared statement once for each parameter tuple (group
of values) provided either in the @bind_values, or by prior calls
to "bind_param_array", or via a reference passed in \%attr.
The execute_array() method returns the number of tuples executed,
or "undef" if an error occured. Like execute(), a successful exe-
cute_array() always returns true regardless of the number of tuples
executed, even if it's zero. See the "ArrayTupleStatus" attribute
below for how to determine the execution status for each tuple.
Bind values for the tuples to be executed may be supplied row-wise
by an "ArrayTupleFetch" attribute, or else column-wise in the
@bind_values argument, or else column-wise by prior calls to
"bind_param_array".
Where column-wise binding is used (via the @bind_values argument or
calls to bind_param_array()) the maximum number of elements in any
one of the bound value arrays determines the number of tuples exe-
cuted. Placeholders with fewer values in their parameter arrays are
treated as if padded with undef (NULL) values.
If a scalar value is bound, instead of an array reference, it is
treated as a variable length array with all elements having the
same value. It's does not influence the number of tuples executed,
so if all bound arrays have zero elements then zero tuples will be
executed. If all bound values are scalars then one tuple will be
executed, making execute_array() act just like execute().
The "ArrayTupleFetch" attribute can be used to specify a reference
to a subroutine that will be called to provide the bind values for
each tuple execution. The subroutine should return an reference to
an array which contains the appropriate number of bind values, or
return an undef if there is no more data to execute.
As a convienience, the "ArrayTupleFetch" attribute can also be used
to specify a statement handle. In which case the
fetchrow_arrayref() method will be called on the given statement
handle in order to provide the bind values for each tuple execu-
tion.
The values specified via bind_param_array() or the @bind_values
parameter may be either scalars, or arrayrefs. If any @bind_values
are given, then "execute_array" will effectively call
"bind_param_array" for each value before executing the statement.
Values bound in this way are usually treated as "SQL_VARCHAR" types
unless the driver can determine the correct type (which is rare),
or unless "bind_param", "bind_param_inout", "bind_param_array", or
"bind_param_inout_array" has already been used to specify the type.
See "bind_param_array" for details.
The "ArrayTupleStatus" attribute can be used to specify a reference
to an array which will receive the execute status of each executed
parameter tuple. Note the "ArrayTupleStatus" attribute was manda-
tory until DBI 1.38.
For tuples which are successfully executed, the element at the same
ordinal position in the status array is the resulting rowcount. If
the execution of a tuple causes an error, then the corresponding
status array element will be set to a reference to an array con-
taining the error code and error string set by the failed execu-
tion.
If any tuple execution returns an error, "execute_array" will
return "undef". In that case, the application should inspect the
status array to determine which parameter tuples failed. Some
databases may not continue executing tuples beyond the first fail-
ure. In this case the status array will either hold fewer elements,
or the elements beyond the failure will be undef.
If all parameter tuples are successfully executed, "execute_array"
returns the number tuples executed. If no tuples were executed,
then execute_array() returns "0E0", just like execute() does, which
Perl will treat as 0 but will regard as true.
For example:
$sth = $dbh->prepare("INSERT INTO staff (first_name, last_name) VALUES (?, ?)");
my $tuples = $sth->execute_array(
{ ArrayTupleStatus => \my @tuple_status },
\@first_names,
\@last_names,
);
if ($tuples) {
print "Successfully inserted $tuples records\n";
}
else {
for my $tuple (0..@last_names-1) {
my $status = $tuple_status[$tuple];
$status = [0, "Skipped"] unless defined $status;
next unless ref $status;
printf "Failed to insert (%s, %s): %s\n",
$first_names[$tuple], $last_names[$tuple], $status->[1];
}
}
Support for data returning statements such as SELECT is driver-spe-
cific and subject to change. At present, the default implementation
provided by DBI only supports non-data returning statements.
Transaction semantics when using array binding are driver and data-
base specific. If "AutoCommit" is on, the default DBI implementa-
tion will cause each parameter tuple to be inidividually committed
(or rolled back in the event of an error). If "AutoCommit" is off,
the application is responsible for explicitly committing the entire
set of bound parameter tuples. Note that different drivers and
databases may have different behaviours when some parameter tuples
cause failures. In some cases, the driver or database may automati-
cally rollback the effect of all prior parameter tuples that suc-
ceeded in the transaction; other drivers or databases may retain
the effect of prior successfully executed parameter tuples. Be sure
to check your driver and database for its specific behaviour.
Note that, in general, performance will usually be better with
"AutoCommit" turned off, and using explicit "commit" after each
"execute_array" call.
The "execute_array" method was added in DBI 1.22, and ArrayTuple-
Fetch was added in 1.36.
"execute_for_fetch"
$rc = $sth->execute_for_fetch($fetch_tuple_sub);
$rc = $sth->execute_for_fetch($fetch_tuple_sub, \@tuple_status);
The execute_for_fetch() method is used to perform bulk operations
and is most often used via the execute_array() method, not
directly.
The fetch subroutine, referenced by $fetch_tuple_sub, is expected
to return a reference to an array (known as a 'tuple') or undef.
The execute_for_fetch() method calls $fetch_tuple_sub, without any
parameters, until it returns a false value. Each tuple returned is
used to provide bind values for an $sth->execute(@$tuple) call.
If there were any errors then "undef" is returned and the
@tuple_status array can be used to discover which tuples failed and
with what errors. If there were no errors then execute_for_fetch()
returns the number of tuples executed. Like execute() and exe-
cute_array() a zero is returned as "0E0" so execute_for_fetch() is
only false on error.
If \@tuple_status is passed then the execute_for_fetch method uses
it to return status information. The tuple_status array holds one
element per tuple. If the corresponding execute() did not fail then
the element holds the return value from execute(), which is typi-
cally a row count. If the execute() did fail then the element holds
a reference to an array containing ($sth->err, $sth->errstr,
$sth->state).
Although each tuple returned by $fetch_tuple_sub is effectively
used to call $sth->execute(@$tuple_array_ref) the exact timing may
vary. Drivers are free to accumulate sets of tuples to pass to the
database server in bulk group operations for more efficient execu-
tion. However, the $fetch_tuple_sub is specifically allowed to
return the same array reference each time (which is what
fetchrow_arrayref() usually does).
For example:
my $sel = $dbh1->prepare("select foo, bar from table1");
$sel->execute;
my $ins = $dbh2->prepare("insert into table2 (foo, bar) values (?,?)");
my $fetch_tuple_sub = sub { $sel->fetchrow_arrayref };
my @tuple_status;
$rc = $ins->execute_for_fetch($fetch_tuple_sub, \@tuple_status);
my @errors = grep { ref $_ } @tuple_status;
Similarly, if you already have an array containing the data rows to
be processed you'd use a subroutine to shift off and return each
array ref in turn:
$ins->execute_for_fetch( sub { shift @array_of_arrays }, \@tuple_status);
The "execute_for_fetch" method was added in DBI 1.38.
"fetchrow_arrayref"
$ary_ref = $sth->fetchrow_arrayref;
$ary_ref = $sth->fetch; # alias
Fetches the next row of data and returns a reference to an array
holding the field values. Null fields are returned as "undef" val-
ues in the array. This is the fastest way to fetch data, particu-
larly if used with "$sth->bind_columns".
If there are no more rows or if an error occurs, then
"fetchrow_arrayref" returns an "undef". You should check
"$sth->err" afterwards (or use the "RaiseError" attribute) to dis-
cover if the "undef" returned was due to an error.
Note that the same array reference is returned for each fetch, so
don't store the reference and then use it after a later fetch.
Also, the elements of the array are also reused for each row, so
take care if you want to take a reference to an element. See also
"bind_columns".
"fetchrow_array"
@ary = $sth->fetchrow_array;
An alternative to "fetchrow_arrayref". Fetches the next row of data
and returns it as a list containing the field values. Null fields
are returned as "undef" values in the list.
If there are no more rows or if an error occurs, then
"fetchrow_array" returns an empty list. You should check
"$sth->err" afterwards (or use the "RaiseError" attribute) to dis-
cover if the empty list returned was due to an error.
If called in a scalar context for a statement handle that has more
than one column, it is undefined whether the driver will return the
value of the first column or the last. So don't do that. Also, in
a scalar context, an "undef" is returned if there are no more rows
or if an error occurred. That "undef" can't be distinguished from
an "undef" returned because the first field value was NULL. For
these reasons you should exercise some caution if you use
"fetchrow_array" in a scalar context.
"fetchrow_hashref"
$hash_ref = $sth->fetchrow_hashref;
$hash_ref = $sth->fetchrow_hashref($name);
An alternative to "fetchrow_arrayref". Fetches the next row of data
and returns it as a reference to a hash containing field name and
field value pairs. Null fields are returned as "undef" values in
the hash.
If there are no more rows or if an error occurs, then
"fetchrow_hashref" returns an "undef". You should check "$sth->err"
afterwards (or use the "RaiseError" attribute) to discover if the
"undef" returned was due to an error.
The optional $name parameter specifies the name of the statement
handle attribute. For historical reasons it defaults to ""NAME"",
however using either ""NAME_lc"" or ""NAME_uc"" is recomended for
portability.
The keys of the hash are the same names returned by
"$sth->{$name}". If more than one field has the same name, there
will only be one entry in the returned hash for those fields.
Because of the extra work "fetchrow_hashref" and Perl have to per-
form, it is not as efficient as "fetchrow_arrayref" or
"fetchrow_array".
By default a reference to a new hash is returned for each row. It
is likely that a future version of the DBI will support an
attribute which will enable the same hash to be reused for each
row. This will give a significant performance boost, but it won't
be enabled by default because of the risk of breaking old code.
"fetchall_arrayref"
$tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref;
$tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref( $slice );
$tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref( $slice, $max_rows );
The "fetchall_arrayref" method can be used to fetch all the data to
be returned from a prepared and executed statement handle. It
returns a reference to an array that contains one reference per
row.
If there are no rows to return, "fetchall_arrayref" returns a ref-
erence to an empty array. If an error occurs, "fetchall_arrayref"
returns the data fetched thus far, which may be none. You should
check "$sth->err" afterwards (or use the "RaiseError" attribute) to
discover if the data is complete or was truncated due to an error.
If $slice is an array reference, "fetchall_arrayref" uses
"fetchrow_arrayref" to fetch each row as an array ref. If the
$slice array is not empty then it is used as a slice to select
individual columns by perl array index number (starting at 0,
unlike column and parameter numbers which start at 1).
With no parameters, or if $slice is undefined, "fetchall_arrayref"
acts as if passed an empty array ref.
If $slice is a hash reference, "fetchall_arrayref" uses
"fetchrow_hashref" to fetch each row as a hash reference. If the
$slice hash is empty then fetchrow_hashref() is simply called in a
tight loop and the keys in the hashes have whatever name lettercase
is returned by default from fetchrow_hashref. (See "FetchHashKey-
Name" attribute.) If the $slice hash is not empty, then it is used
as a slice to select individual columns by name. The values of the
hash should be set to 1. The key names of the returned hashes
match the letter case of the names in the parameter hash, regard-
less of the "FetchHashKeyName" attribute.
For example, to fetch just the first column of every row:
$tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref([0]);
To fetch the second to last and last column of every row:
$tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref([-2,-1]);
To fetch all fields of every row as a hash ref:
$tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref({});
To fetch only the fields called "foo" and "bar" of every row as a
hash ref (with keys named "foo" and "BAR"):
$tbl_ary_ref = $sth->fetchall_arrayref({ foo=>1, BAR=>1 });
The first two examples return a reference to an array of array
refs. The third and forth return a reference to an array of hash
refs.
If $max_rows is defined and greater than or equal to zero then it
is used to limit the number of rows fetched before returning.
fetchall_arrayref() can then be called again to fetch more rows.
This is especially useful when you need the better performance of
fetchall_arrayref() but don't have enough memory to fetch and
return all the rows in one go. Here's an example:
my $rows = []; # cache for batches of rows
while( my $row = ( shift(@$rows) || # get row from cache, or reload cache:
shift(@{$rows=$sth->fetchall_arrayref(undef,10_000)||[]}) )
) {
...
}
That can be the fastest way to fetch and process lots of rows using
the DBI, but it depends on the relative cost of method calls vs
memory allocation.
A standard "while" loop with column binding is often faster because
the cost of allocating memory for the batch of rows is greater than
the saving by reducing method calls. It's possible that the DBI may
provide a way to reuse the memory of a previous batch in future,
which would then shift the balance back towards
fetchall_arrayref().
"fetchall_hashref"
$hash_ref = $sth->fetchall_hashref($key_field);
The "fetchall_hashref" method can be used to fetch all the data to
be returned from a prepared and executed statement handle. It
returns a reference to a hash containing a key for each distinct
value of the $key_field column that was fetched. For each key the
corresponding value is a reference to a hash containing all the
selected columns and their values, as returned by
fetchrow_hashref().
If there are no rows to return, "fetchall_hashref" returns a refer-
ence to an empty hash. If an error occurs, "fetchall_hashref"
returns the data fetched thus far, which may be none. You should
check "$sth->err" afterwards (or use the "RaiseError" attribute) to
discover if the data is complete or was truncated due to an error.
The $key_field parameter provides the name of the field that holds
the value to be used for the key for the returned hash. For exam-
ple:
$dbh->{FetchHashKeyName} = 'NAME_lc';
$sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT FOO, BAR, ID, NAME, BAZ FROM TABLE");
$sth->execute;
$hash_ref = $sth->fetchall_hashref('id');
print "Name for id 42 is $hash_ref->{42}->{name}\n";
The $key_field parameter can also be specified as an integer column
number (counting from 1). If $key_field doesn't match any column
in the statement, as a name first then as a number, then an error
is returned.
For queries returing more than one 'key' column, you can specify
multiple column names by passing $key_field as a reference to an
array containing one or more key column names (or index numbers).
For example:
$sth = $dbh->prepare("SELECT foo, bar, baz FROM table");
$sth->execute;
$hash_ref = $sth->fetchall_hashref( [ qw(foo bar) ] );
print "For foo 42 and bar 38, baz is $hash_ref->{42}->{38}->{baz}\n";
The fetchall_hashref() method is normally used only where the key
fields values for each row are unique. If multiple rows are
returned with the same values for the key fields then later rows
overwrite earlier ones.
"finish"
$rc = $sth->finish;
Indicate that no more data will be fetched from this statement han-
dle before it is either executed again or destroyed. The "finish"
method is rarely needed, and frequently overused, but can sometimes
be helpful in a few very specific situations to allow the server to
free up resources (such as sort buffers).
When all the data has been fetched from a "SELECT" statement, the
driver should automatically call "finish" for you. So you should
not normally need to call it explicitly except when you know that
you've not fetched all the data from a statement handle. The most
common example is when you only want to fetch one row, but in that
case the "selectrow_*" methods are usually better anyway. Adding
calls to "finish" after each fetch loop is a common mistake, don't
do it, it can mask genuine problems like uncaught fetch errors.
Consider a query like:
SELECT foo FROM table WHERE bar=? ORDER BY foo
where you want to select just the first (smallest) "foo" value from
a very large table. When executed, the database server will have to
use temporary buffer space to store the sorted rows. If, after exe-
cuting the handle and selecting one row, the handle won't be re-
executed for some time and won't be destroyed, the "finish" method
can be used to tell the server that the buffer space can be freed.
Calling "finish" resets the "Active" attribute for the statement.
It may also make some statement handle attributes (such as "NAME"
and "TYPE") unavailable if they have not already been accessed (and
thus cached).
The "finish" method does not affect the transaction status of the
database connection. It has nothing to do with transactions. It's
mostly an internal "housekeeping" method that is rarely needed.
See also "disconnect" and the "Active" attribute.
The "finish" method should have been called "discard_pending_rows".
"rows"
$rv = $sth->rows;
Returns the number of rows affected by the last row affecting com-
mand, or -1 if the number of rows is not known or not available.
Generally, you can only rely on a row count after a non-"SELECT"
"execute" (for some specific operations like "UPDATE" and
"DELETE"), or after fetching all the rows of a "SELECT" statement.
For "SELECT" statements, it is generally not possible to know how
many rows will be returned except by fetching them all. Some driv-
ers will return the number of rows the application has fetched so
far, but others may return -1 until all rows have been fetched. So
use of the "rows" method or $DBI::rows with "SELECT" statements is
not recommended.
One alternative method to get a row count for a "SELECT" is to exe-
cute a "SELECT COUNT(*) FROM ..." SQL statement with the same "..."
as your query and then fetch the row count from that.
"bind_col"
$rc = $sth->bind_col($column_number, \$var_to_bind);
$rc = $sth->bind_col($column_number, \$var_to_bind, \%attr );
$rc = $sth->bind_col($column_number, \$var_to_bind, $bind_type );
Binds a Perl variable and/or some attributes to an output column
(field) of a "SELECT" statement. Column numbers count up from 1.
You do not need to bind output columns in order to fetch data. For
maximum portability between drivers, bind_col() should be called
after execute() and not before. See also "bind_columns" for an
example.
The binding is performed at a low level using Perl aliasing. When-
ever a row is fetched from the database $var_to_bind appears to be
automatically updated simply because it now refers to the same mem-
ory location as the corresponding column value. This makes using
bound variables very efficient. Binding a tied variable doesn't
work, currently.
The "bind_param" method performs a similar, but opposite, function
for input variables.
Data Types for Column Binding
The "\%attr" parameter can be used to hint at the data type format-
ting the column should have. For example, you can use:
$sth->bind_col(1, undef, { TYPE => SQL_DATETIME });
to specify that you'd like the column (which presumably is some
kind of datetime type) to be returned in the standard format for
SQL_DATETIME, which is 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS', rather than the
native formatting the database would normally use.
There's no $var_to_bind in that example to emphasize the point that
bind_col() works on the underlying column value and not just a par-
ticular bound variable.
As a short-cut for the common case, the data type can be passed
directly, in place of the "\%attr" hash reference. This example is
equivalent to the one above:
$sth->bind_col(1, undef, SQL_DATETIME);
The "TYPE" value indicates the standard (non-driver-specific) type
for this parameter. To specify the driver-specific type, the driver
may support a driver-specific attribute, such as "{ ora_type => 97
}".
The SQL_DATETIME and other related constants can be imported using
use DBI qw(:sql_types);
See "DBI Constants" for more information.
The data type for a bind variable cannot be changed after the first
"bind_col" call. In fact the whole \%attr parameter is 'sticky' in
the sense that a driver only needs to consider the \%attr parameter
for the first call for a given $sth and column.
The TYPE attribute for bind_col() was first specified in DBI 1.41.
"bind_columns"
$rc = $sth->bind_columns(@list_of_refs_to_vars_to_bind);
Calls "bind_col" for each column of the "SELECT" statement.
The list of references should have the same number of elements as
the number of columns in the "SELECT" statement. If it doesn't then
"bind_columns" will bind the elements given, upto the number of
columns, and then return an error.
For maximum portability between drivers, bind_columns() should be
called after execute() and not before.
For example:
$dbh->{RaiseError} = 1; # do this, or check every call for errors
$sth = $dbh->prepare(q{ SELECT region, sales FROM sales_by_region });
$sth->execute;
my ($region, $sales);
# Bind Perl variables to columns:
$rv = $sth->bind_columns(\$region, \$sales);
# you can also use Perl's \(...) syntax (see perlref docs):
# $sth->bind_columns(\($region, $sales));
# Column binding is the most efficient way to fetch data
while ($sth->fetch) {
print "$region: $sales\n";
}
For compatibility with old scripts, the first parameter will be
ignored if it is "undef" or a hash reference.
Here's a more fancy example that binds columns to the values inside
a hash (thanks to H.Merijn Brand):
$sth->execute;
my %row;
$sth->bind_columns( \( @row{ @{$sth->{NAME_lc} } } ));
while ($sth->fetch) {
print "$row{region}: $row{sales}\n";
}
"dump_results"
$rows = $sth->dump_results($maxlen, $lsep, $fsep, $fh);
Fetches all the rows from $sth, calls "DBI::neat_list" for each
row, and prints the results to $fh (defaults to "STDOUT") separated
by $lsep (default "\n"). $fsep defaults to ", " and $maxlen
defaults to 35.
This method is designed as a handy utility for prototyping and
testing queries. Since it uses "neat_list" to format and edit the
string for reading by humans, it is not recomended for data trans-
fer applications.
Statement Handle Attributes
This section describes attributes specific to statement handles. Most
of these attributes are read-only.
Changes to these statement handle attributes do not affect any other
existing or future statement handles.
Attempting to set or get the value of an unknown attribute generates a
warning, except for private driver specific attributes (which all have
names starting with a lowercase letter).
Example:
... = $h->{NUM_OF_FIELDS}; # get/read
Some drivers cannot provide valid values for some or all of these
attributes until after "$sth->execute" has been successfully called.
Typically the attribute will be "undef" in these situations.
Some attributes, like NAME, are not appropriate to some types of state-
ment, like SELECT. Typically the attribute will be "undef" in these
situations.
See also "finish" to learn more about the effect it may have on some
attributes.
"NUM_OF_FIELDS" (integer, read-only)
Number of fields (columns) in the data the prepared statement may
return. Statements that don't return rows of data, like "DELETE"
and "CREATE" set "NUM_OF_FIELDS" to 0 (though it may be undef in
some drivers).
"NUM_OF_PARAMS" (integer, read-only)
The number of parameters (placeholders) in the prepared statement.
See SUBSTITUTION VARIABLES below for more details.
"NAME" (array-ref, read-only)
Returns a reference to an array of field names for each column. The
names may contain spaces but should not be truncated or have any
trailing space. Note that the names have the letter case (upper,
lower or mixed) as returned by the driver being used. Portable
applications should use "NAME_lc" or "NAME_uc".
print "First column name: $sth->{NAME}->[0]\n";
"NAME_lc" (array-ref, read-only)
Like "NAME" but always returns lowercase names.
"NAME_uc" (array-ref, read-only)
Like "NAME" but always returns uppercase names.
"NAME_hash" (hash-ref, read-only)
"NAME_lc_hash" (hash-ref, read-only)
"NAME_uc_hash" (hash-ref, read-only)
The "NAME_hash", "NAME_lc_hash", and "NAME_uc_hash" attributes
return column name information as a reference to a hash.
The keys of the hash are the names of the columns. The letter case
of the keys corresponds to the letter case returned by the "NAME",
"NAME_lc", and "NAME_uc" attributes respectively (as described
above).
The value of each hash entry is the perl index number of the corre-
sponding column (counting from 0). For example:
$sth = $dbh->prepare("select Id, Name from table");
$sth->execute;
@row = $sth->fetchrow_array;
print "Name $row[ $sth->{NAME_lc_hash}{name} ]\n";
"TYPE" (array-ref, read-only)
Returns a reference to an array of integer values for each column.
The value indicates the data type of the corresponding column.
The values correspond to the international standards (ANSI X3.135
and ISO/IEC 9075) which, in general terms, means ODBC. Driver-spe-
cific types that don't exactly match standard types should gener-
ally return the same values as an ODBC driver supplied by the mak-
ers of the database. That might include private type numbers in
ranges the vendor has officially registered with the ISO working
group:
ftp://sqlstandards.org/SC32/SQL_Registry/
Where there's no vendor-supplied ODBC driver to be compatible with,
the DBI driver can use type numbers in the range that is now offi-
cially reserved for use by the DBI: -9999 to -9000.
All possible values for "TYPE" should have at least one entry in
the output of the "type_info_all" method (see "type_info_all").
"PRECISION" (array-ref, read-only)
Returns a reference to an array of integer values for each column.
For numeric columns, the value is the maximum number of digits
(without considering a sign character or decimal point). Note that
the "display size" for floating point types (REAL, FLOAT, DOUBLE)
can be up to 7 characters greater than the precision (for the sign
+ decimal point + the letter E + a sign + 2 or 3 digits).
For any character type column the value is the OCTET_LENGTH, in
other words the number of bytes, not characters.
(More recent standards refer to this as COLUMN_SIZE but we stick
with PRECISION for backwards compatibility.)
"SCALE" (array-ref, read-only)
Returns a reference to an array of integer values for each column.
NULL ("undef") values indicate columns where scale is not applica-
ble.
"NULLABLE" (array-ref, read-only)
Returns a reference to an array indicating the possibility of each
column returning a null. Possible values are 0 (or an empty
string) = no, 1 = yes, 2 = unknown.
print "First column may return NULL\n" if $sth->{NULLABLE}->[0];
"CursorName" (string, read-only)
Returns the name of the cursor associated with the statement han-
dle, if available. If not available or if the database driver does
not support the "where current of ..." SQL syntax, then it returns
"undef".
"Database" (dbh, read-only)
Returns the parent $dbh of the statement handle.
"ParamValues" (hash ref, read-only)
Returns a reference to a hash containing the values currently bound
to placeholders. The keys of the hash are the 'names' of the
placeholders, typically integers starting at 1. Returns undef if
not supported by the driver.
See "ShowErrorStatement" for an example of how this is used.
If the driver supports "ParamValues" but no values have been bound
yet then the driver should return a hash with placeholders names in
the keys but all the values undef, but some drivers may return a
ref to an empty hash.
It is possible that the values in the hash returned by "ParamVal-
ues" are not exactly the same as those passed to bind_param() or
execute(). The driver may have slightly modified values in some
way based on the TYPE the value was bound with. For example a
floating point value bound as an SQL_INTEGER type may be returned
as an integer. The values returned by "ParamValues" can be passed
to another bind_param() method with the same TYPE and will be seen
by the database as the same value.
It is also possible that the keys in the hash returned by "Param-
Values" are not exactly the same as those implied by the prepared
statement. For example, DBD::Oracle translates '"?"' placeholders
into '":pN"' where N is a sequence number starting at 1.
The "ParamValues" attribute was added in DBI 1.28.
"ParamArrays" (hash ref, read-only)
Returns a reference to a hash containing the values currently bound
to placeholders with "execute_array" or "bind_param_array". The
keys of the hash are the 'names' of the placeholders, typically
integers starting at 1. Returns undef if not supported by the
driver or no arrays of parameters are bound.
Each key value is an array reference containing a list of the bound
parameters for that column.
For example:
$sth = $dbh->prepare("INSERT INTO staff (id, name) values (?,?)");
$sth->execute_array({},[1,2], ['fred','dave']);
if ($sth->{ParamArrays}) {
foreach $param (keys %{$sth->{ParamArrays}}) {
printf "Parameters for %s : %s\n", $param,
join(",", @{$sth->{ParamArrays}->{$param}});
}
}
It is possible that the values in the hash returned by "ParamAr-
rays" are not exactly the same as those passed to
"bind_param_array" or "execute_array". The driver may have
slightly modified values in some way based on the TYPE the value
was bound with. For example a floating point value bound as an
SQL_INTEGER type may be returned as an integer.
It is also possible that the keys in the hash returned by "ParamAr-
rays" are not exactly the same as those implied by the prepared
statement. For example, DBD::Oracle translates '"?"' placeholders
into '":pN"' where N is a sequence number starting at 1.
"ParamTypes" (hash ref, read-only)
Returns a reference to a hash containing the type information cur-
rently bound to placeholders. The keys of the hash are the 'names'
of the placeholders: either integers starting at 1, or, for drivers
that support named placeholders, the actual parameter name string.
The hash values are hashrefs of type information in the same form
as that provided to the various bind_param() methods (See "Data
Types for Placeholders" for the format and values), plus anything
else that was passed as the third argument to bind_param().
Returns undef if not supported by the driver.
If the driver supports "ParamTypes", but no values have been bound
yet, then the driver should return a hash with the placeholder name
keys, but all the values undef; however, some drivers may return a
ref to an empty hash, or, alternately, may provide type information
supplied by the database (only a few databases can do that).
It is possible that the values in the hash returned by "ParamTypes"
are not exactly the same as those passed to bind_param() or exe-
cute(). The driver may have modified the type information in some
way based on the bound values, other hints provided by the pre-
pare()'d SQL statement, or alternate type mappings required by the
driver or target database system.
It is also possible that the keys in the hash returned by "Param-
Types" are not exactly the same as those implied by the prepared
statement. For example, DBD::Oracle translates '"?"' placeholders
into '":pN"' where N is a sequence number starting at 1.
The "ParamTypes" attribute was added in DBI 1.49. Implementation is
the responsibility of individual drivers; the DBI layer default
implementation simply returns undef.
"Statement" (string, read-only)
Returns the statement string passed to the "prepare" method.
"RowsInCache" (integer, read-only)
If the driver supports a local row cache for "SELECT" statements,
then this attribute holds the number of un-fetched rows in the
cache. If the driver doesn't, then it returns "undef". Note that
some drivers pre-fetch rows on execute, whereas others wait till
the first fetch.
See also the "RowCacheSize" database handle attribute.
OTHER METHODS
"install_method"
DBD::Foo::db->install_method($method_name, \%attr);
Installs the driver-private method named by $method_name into the
DBI method dispatcher so it can be called directly, avoiding the
need to use the func() method.
It is called as a static method on the driver class to which the
method belongs. The method name must begin with the corresponding
registered driver-private prefix. For example, for DBD::Oracle
$method_name must being with '"ora_"', and for DBD::AnyData it must
begin with '"ad_"'.
The attributes can be used to provide fine control over how the DBI
dispatcher handles the dispatching of the method. However, at this
point, it's undocumented and very liable to change. (Volunteers to
polish up and document the interface are very welcome to get in
touch via dbi-dev@perl.org)
Methods installed using install_method default to the standard
error handling behaviour for DBI methods: clearing err and errstr
before calling the method, and checking for errors to trigger
RaiseError etc. on return. This differs from the default behaviour
of func().
Note for driver authors: The DBD::Foo::xx->install_method call
won't work until the class-hierarchy has been setup. Normally the
DBI looks after that just after the driver is loaded. This means
install_method() can't be called at the time the driver is loaded
unless the class-hierarchy is set up first. The way to do that is
to call the setup_driver() method:
DBI->setup_driver('DBD::Foo');
before using install_method().
FURTHER INFORMATION
Catalog Methods
An application can retrieve metadata information from the DBMS by issu-
ing appropriate queries on the views of the Information Schema. Unfor-
tunately, "INFORMATION_SCHEMA" views are seldom supported by the DBMS.
Special methods (catalog methods) are available to return result sets
for a small but important portion of that metadata:
column_info
foreign_key_info
primary_key_info
table_info
All catalog methods accept arguments in order to restrict the result
sets. Passing "undef" to an optional argument does not constrain the
search for that argument. However, an empty string ('') is treated as
a regular search criteria and will only match an empty value.
Note: SQL/CLI and ODBC differ in the handling of empty strings. An
empty string will not restrict the result set in SQL/CLI.
Most arguments in the catalog methods accept only ordinary values, e.g.
the arguments of "primary_key_info()". Such arguments are treated as a
literal string, i.e. the case is significant and quote characters are
taken literally.
Some arguments in the catalog methods accept search patterns (strings
containing '_' and/or '%'), e.g. the $table argument of "col-
umn_info()". Passing '%' is equivalent to leaving the argument
"undef".
Caveat: The underscore ('_') is valid and often used in SQL identi-
fiers. Passing such a value to a search pattern argument may return
more rows than expected! To include pattern characters as literals,
they must be preceded by an escape character which can be achieved with
$esc = $dbh->get_info( 14 ); # SQL_SEARCH_PATTERN_ESCAPE
$search_pattern =~ s/([_%])/$esc$1/g;
The ODBC and SQL/CLI specifications define a way to change the default
behaviour described above: All arguments (except list value arguments)
are treated as identifier if the "SQL_ATTR_METADATA_ID" attribute is
set to "SQL_TRUE". Quoted identifiers are very similar to ordinary
values, i.e. their body (the string within the quotes) is interpreted
literally. Unquoted identifiers are compared in UPPERCASE.
The DBI (currently) does not support the "SQL_ATTR_METADATA_ID"
attribute, i.e. it behaves like an ODBC driver where "SQL_ATTR_META-
DATA_ID" is set to "SQL_FALSE".
Transactions
Transactions are a fundamental part of any robust database system. They
protect against errors and database corruption by ensuring that sets of
related changes to the database take place in atomic (indivisible,
all-or-nothing) units.
This section applies to databases that support transactions and where
"AutoCommit" is off. See "AutoCommit" for details of using "AutoCom-
mit" with various types of databases.
The recommended way to implement robust transactions in Perl applica-
tions is to use "RaiseError" and "eval { ... }" (which is very fast,
unlike "eval "...""). For example:
$dbh->{AutoCommit} = 0; # enable transactions, if possible
$dbh->{RaiseError} = 1;
eval {
foo(...) # do lots of work here
bar(...) # including inserts
baz(...) # and updates
$dbh->commit; # commit the changes if we get this far
};
if ($@) {
warn "Transaction aborted because $@";
# now rollback to undo the incomplete changes
# but do it in an eval{} as it may also fail
eval { $dbh->rollback };
# add other application on-error-clean-up code here
}
If the "RaiseError" attribute is not set, then DBI calls would need to
be manually checked for errors, typically like this:
$h->method(@args) or die $h->errstr;
With "RaiseError" set, the DBI will automatically "die" if any DBI
method call on that handle (or a child handle) fails, so you don't have
to test the return value of each method call. See "RaiseError" for more
details.
A major advantage of the "eval" approach is that the transaction will
be properly rolled back if any code (not just DBI calls) in the inner
application dies for any reason. The major advantage of using the
"$h->{RaiseError}" attribute is that all DBI calls will be checked
automatically. Both techniques are strongly recommended.
After calling "commit" or "rollback" many drivers will not let you
fetch from a previously active "SELECT" statement handle that's a child
of the same database handle. A typical way round this is to connect the
the database twice and use one connection for "SELECT" statements.
See "AutoCommit" and "disconnect" for other important information about
transactions.
Handling BLOB / LONG / Memo Fields
Many databases support "blob" (binary large objects), "long", or simi-
lar datatypes for holding very long strings or large amounts of binary
data in a single field. Some databases support variable length long
values over 2,000,000,000 bytes in length.
Since values of that size can't usually be held in memory, and because
databases can't usually know in advance the length of the longest long
that will be returned from a "SELECT" statement (unlike other data
types), some special handling is required.
In this situation, the value of the "$h->{LongReadLen}" attribute is
used to determine how much buffer space to allocate when fetching such
fields. The "$h->{LongTruncOk}" attribute is used to determine how to
behave if a fetched value can't fit into the buffer.
See the description of "LongReadLen" for more information.
When trying to insert long or binary values, placeholders should be
used since there are often limits on the maximum size of an "INSERT"
statement and the "quote" method generally can't cope with binary data.
See "Placeholders and Bind Values".
Simple Examples
Here's a complete example program to select and fetch some data:
my $data_source = "dbi::DriverName:db_name";
my $dbh = DBI->connect($data_source, $user, $password)
or die "Can't connect to $data_source: $DBI::errstr";
my $sth = $dbh->prepare( q{
SELECT name, phone
FROM mytelbook
}) or die "Can't prepare statement: $DBI::errstr";
my $rc = $sth->execute
or die "Can't execute statement: $DBI::errstr";
print "Query will return $sth->{NUM_OF_FIELDS} fields.\n\n";
print "Field names: @{ $sth->{NAME} }\n";
while (($name, $phone) = $sth->fetchrow_array) {
print "$name: $phone\n";
}
# check for problems which may have terminated the fetch early
die $sth->errstr if $sth->err;
$dbh->disconnect;
Here's a complete example program to insert some data from a file.
(This example uses "RaiseError" to avoid needing to check each call).
my $dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:DriverName:db_name", $user, $password, {
RaiseError => 1, AutoCommit => 0
});
my $sth = $dbh->prepare( q{
INSERT INTO table (name, phone) VALUES (?, ?)
});
open FH, "<phone.csv" or die "Unable to open phone.csv: $!";
while (<FH>) {
chomp;
my ($name, $phone) = split /,/;
$sth->execute($name, $phone);
}
close FH;
$dbh->commit;
$dbh->disconnect;
Here's how to convert fetched NULLs (undefined values) into empty
strings:
while($row = $sth->fetchrow_arrayref) {
# this is a fast and simple way to deal with nulls:
foreach (@$row) { $_ = '' unless defined }
print "@$row\n";
}
The "q{...}" style quoting used in these examples avoids clashing with
quotes that may be used in the SQL statement. Use the double-quote like
"qq{...}" operator if you want to interpolate variables into the
string. See "Quote and Quote-like Operators" in perlop for more
details.
Threads and Thread Safety
Perl 5.7 and later support a new threading model called iThreads. (The
old "5.005 style" threads are not supported by the DBI.)
In the iThreads model each thread has it's own copy of the perl inter-
preter. When a new thread is created the original perl interpreter is
'cloned' to create a new copy for the new thread.
If the DBI and drivers are loaded and handles created before the thread
is created then it will get a cloned copy of the DBI, the drivers and
the handles.
However, the internal pointer data within the handles will refer to the
DBI and drivers in the original interpreter. Using those handles in the
new interpreter thread is not safe, so the DBI detects this and croaks
on any method call using handles that don't belong to the current
thread (except for DESTROY).
Because of this (possibly temporary) restriction, newly created threads
must make their own connctions to the database. Handles can't be shared
across threads.
But BEWARE, some underlying database APIs (the code the DBD driver uses
to talk to the database, often supplied by the database vendor) are not
thread safe. If it's not thread safe, then allowing more than one
thread to enter the code at the same time may cause subtle/serious
problems. In some cases allowing more than one thread to enter the
code, even if not at the same time, can cause problems. You have been
warned.
Using DBI with perl threads is not yet recommended for production envi-
ronments. For more information see <http://www.perl-
monks.org/index.pl?node_id=288022>
Note: There is a bug in perl 5.8.2 when configured with threads and
debugging enabled (bug #24463) which causes a DBI test to fail.
Signal Handling and Canceling Operations
[The following only applies to systems with unix-like signal handling.
I'd welcome additions for other systems, especially Windows.]
The first thing to say is that signal handling in Perl versions less
than 5.8 is not safe. There is always a small risk of Perl crashing
and/or core dumping when, or after, handling a signal because the sig-
nal could arrive and be handled while internal data structures are
being changed. If the signal handling code used those same internal
data structures it could cause all manner of subtle and not-so-subtle
problems. The risk was reduced with 5.4.4 but was still present in all
perls up through 5.8.0.
Beginning in perl 5.8.0 perl implements 'safe' signal handling if your
system has the POSIX sigaction() routine. Now when a signal is deliv-
ered perl just makes a note of it but does not run the %SIG handler.
The handling is 'defered' until a 'safe' moment.
Although this change made signal handling safe, it also lead to a prob-
lem with signals being defered for longer than you'd like. If a signal
arrived while executing a system call, such as waiting for data on a
network connection, the signal is noted and then the system call that
was executing returns with an EINTR error code to indicate that it was
interrupted. All fine so far.
The problem comes when the code that made the system call sees the
EINTR code and decides it's going to call it again. Perl doesn't do
that, but database code sometimes does. If that happens then the signal
handler doesn't get called untill later. Maybe much later.
Fortunately there are ways around this which we'll discuss below.
Unfortunately they make signals unsafe again.
The two most common uses of signals in relation to the DBI are for can-
celing operations when the user types Ctrl-C (interrupt), and for
implementing a timeout using "alarm()" and $SIG{ALRM}.
Cancel
The DBI provides a "cancel" method for statement handles. The "can-
cel" method should abort the current operation and is designed to
be called from a signal handler. For example:
$SIG{INT} = sub { $sth->cancel };
However, few drivers implement this (the DBI provides a default
method that just returns "undef") and, even if implemented, there
is still a possibility that the statement handle, and even the par-
ent database handle, will not be usable afterwards.
If "cancel" returns true, then it has successfully invoked the
database engine's own cancel function. If it returns false, then
"cancel" failed. If it returns "undef", then the database driver
does not have cancel implemented.
Timeout
The traditional way to implement a timeout is to set $SIG{ALRM} to
refer to some code that will be executed when an ALRM signal
arrives and then to call alarm($seconds) to schedule an ALRM signal
to be delivered $seconds in the future. For example:
eval {
local $SIG{ALRM} = sub { die "TIMEOUT\n" };
alarm($seconds);
... code to execute with timeout here ...
alarm(0); # cancel alarm (if code ran fast)
};
alarm(0); # cancel alarm (if eval failed)
if ( $@ eq "TIMEOUT" ) { ... }
Unfortunately, as described above, this won't always work as
expected, depending on your perl version and the underlying data-
base code.
With Oracle for instance (DBD::Oracle), if the system which hosts
the database is down the DBI->connect() call will hang for several
minutes before returning an error.
The solution on these systems is to use the "POSIX::sigaction()" rou-
tine to gain low level access to how the signal handler is installed.
The code would look something like this (for the DBD-Oracle connect()):
use POSIX ':signal_h';
my $mask = POSIX::SigSet->new( SIGALRM ); # signals to mask in the handler
my $action = POSIX::SigAction->new(
sub { die "connect timeout" }, # the handler code ref
$mask,
# not using (perl 5.8.2 and later) 'safe' switch or sa_flags
);
my $oldaction = POSIX::SigAction->new();
sigaction( 'ALRM', $action, $oldaction );
my $dbh;
eval {
alarm(5); # seconds before time out
$dbh = DBI->connect("dbi:Oracle:$dsn" ... );
alarm(0); # cancel alarm (if connect worked fast)
};
alarm(0); # cancel alarm (if eval failed)
sigaction( 'ALRM', $oldaction ); # restore original signal handler
if ( $@ ) ....
Similar techniques can be used for canceling statement execution.
Unfortunately, this solution is somewhat messy, and it does not work
with perl versions less than perl 5.8 where "POSIX::sigaction()"
appears to be broken.
For a cleaner implementation that works across perl versions, see Lin-
coln Baxter's Sys::SigAction module at <http://search.cpan.org/~lbax-
ter/Sys-SigAction/>. The documentation for Sys::SigAction includes an
longer discussion of this problem, and a DBD::Oracle test script.
Be sure to read all the signal handling sections of the perlipc manual.
And finally, two more points to keep firmly in mind. Firstly, remember
that what we've done here is essentially revert to old style unsafe
handling of these signals. So do as little as possible in the handler.
Ideally just die(). Secondly, the handles in use at the time the signal
is handled may not be safe to use afterwards.
Subclassing the DBI
DBI can be subclassed and extended just like any other object oriented
module. Before we talk about how to do that, it's important to be
clear about the various DBI classes and how they work together.
By default "$dbh = DBI->connect(...)" returns a $dbh blessed into the
"DBI::db" class. And the "$dbh->prepare" method returns an $sth
blessed into the "DBI::st" class (actually it simply changes the last
four characters of the calling handle class to be "::st").
The leading '"DBI"' is known as the 'root class' and the extra '"::db"'
or '"::st"' are the 'handle type suffixes'. If you want to subclass the
DBI you'll need to put your overriding methods into the appropriate
classes. For example, if you want to use a root class of "MySubDBI"
and override the do(), prepare() and execute() methods, then your do()
and prepare() methods should be in the "MySubDBI::db" class and the
execute() method should be in the "MySubDBI::st" class.
To setup the inheritance hierarchy the @ISA variable in "MySubDBI::db"
should include "DBI::db" and the @ISA variable in "MySubDBI::st" should
include "DBI::st". The "MySubDBI" root class itself isn't currently
used for anything visible and so, apart from setting @ISA to include
"DBI", it can be left empty.
So, having put your overriding methods into the right classes, and set-
up the inheritance hierarchy, how do you get the DBI to use them? You
have two choices, either a static method call using the name of your
subclass:
$dbh = MySubDBI->connect(...);
or specifying a "RootClass" attribute:
$dbh = DBI->connect(..., { RootClass => 'MySubDBI' });
If both forms are used then the attribute takes precedence.
The only differences between the two are that using an explicit Root-
Class attribute will a) make the DBI automatically attempt to load a
module by that name if the class doesn't exist, and b) won't call your
MySubDBI::connect() method, if you have one.
When subclassing is being used then, after a successful new connect,
the DBI->connect method automatically calls:
$dbh->connected($dsn, $user, $pass, \%attr);
The default method does nothing. The call is made just to simplify any
post-connection setup that your subclass may want to perform. The
parameters are the same as passed to DBI->connect. If your subclass
supplies a connected method, it should be part of the MySubDBI::db
package.
One more thing to note: you must let the DBI do the handle creation.
If you want to override the connect() method in your *::dr class then
it must still call SUPER::connect to get a $dbh to work with. Simi-
larly, an overridden prepare() method in *::db must still call
SUPER::prepare to get a $sth. If you try to create your own handles
using bless() then you'll find the DBI will reject them with an "is not
a DBI handle (has no magic)" error.
Here's a brief example of a DBI subclass. A more thorough example can
be found in t/subclass.t in the DBI distribution.
package MySubDBI;
use strict;
use DBI;
use vars qw(@ISA);
@ISA = qw(DBI);
package MySubDBI::db;
use vars qw(@ISA);
@ISA = qw(DBI::db);
sub prepare {
my ($dbh, @args) = @_;
my $sth = $dbh->SUPER::prepare(@args)
or return;
$sth->{private_mysubdbi_info} = { foo => 'bar' };
return $sth;
}
package MySubDBI::st;
use vars qw(@ISA);
@ISA = qw(DBI::st);
sub fetch {
my ($sth, @args) = @_;
my $row = $sth->SUPER::fetch(@args)
or return;
do_something_magical_with_row_data($row)
or return $sth->set_err(1234, "The magic failed", undef, "fetch");
return $row;
}
When calling a SUPER::method that returns a handle, be careful to check
the return value before trying to do other things with it in your over-
ridden method. This is especially important if you want to set a hash
attribute on the handle, as Perl's autovivification will bite you by
(in)conveniently creating an unblessed hashref, which your method will
then return with usually baffling results later on. It's best to check
right after the call and return undef immediately on error, just like
DBI would and just like the example above.
If your method needs to record an error it should call the set_err()
method with the error code and error string, as shown in the example
above. The error code and error string will be recorded in the handle
and available via "$h->err" and $DBI::errstr etc. The set_err() method
always returns an undef or empty list as approriate. Since your method
should nearly always return an undef or empty list as soon as an error
is detected it's handy to simply return what set_err() returns, as
shown in the example above.
If the handle has "RaiseError", "PrintError", or "HandleError" etc. set
then the set_err() method will honour them. This means that if
"RaiseError" is set then set_err() won't return in the normal way but
will 'throw an exception' that can be caught with an "eval" block.
You can stash private data into DBI handles via "$h->{private_..._*}".
See the entry under "ATTRIBUTES COMMON TO ALL HANDLES" for info and
important caveats.
TRACING
The DBI has a powerful tracing mechanism built in. It enables you to
see what's going on 'behind the scenes', both within the DBI and the
drivers you're using.
Trace Settings
Which details are written to the trace output is controlled by a combi-
nation of a trace level, an integer from 0 to 15, and a set of trace
flags that are either on or off. Together these are known as the trace
settings and are stored together in a single integer. For normal use
you only need to set the trace level, and generally only to a value
between 1 and 4.
Each handle has it's own trace settings, and so does the DBI. When you
call a method the DBI merges the handles settings into its own for the
duration of the call: the trace flags of the handle are OR'd into the
trace flags of the DBI, and if the handle has a higher trace level then
the DBI trace level is raised to match it. The previous DBI trace set-
ings are restored when the called method returns.
Trace Levels
Trace levels are as follows:
0 - Trace disabled.
1 - Trace DBI method calls returning with results or errors.
2 - Trace method entry with parameters and returning with results.
3 - As above, adding some high-level information from the driver
and some internal information from the DBI.
4 - As above, adding more detailed information from the driver.
5 to 15 - As above but with more and more obscure information.
Trace level 1 is best for a simple overview of what's happening. Trace
level 2 is a good choice for general purpose tracing. Levels 3 and
above are best reserved for investigating a specific problem, when you
need to see "inside" the driver and DBI.
The trace output is detailed and typically very useful. Much of the
trace output is formatted using the "neat" function, so strings in the
trace output may be edited and truncated by that function.
Trace Flags
Trace flags are used to enable tracing of specific activities within
the DBI and drivers. The DBI defines some trace flags and drivers can
define others. DBI trace flag names begin with a capital letter and
driver specific names begin with a lowercase letter, as usual.
Curently the DBI only defines two trace flags:
ALL - turn on all DBI and driver flags (not recommended)
SQL - trace SQL statements executed (not yet implemented)
The "parse_trace_flags" and "parse_trace_flag" methods are used to con-
vert trace flag names into the coresponding integer bit flags.
Enabling Trace
The "$h->trace" method sets the trace settings for a handle and
"DBI->trace" does the same for the DBI.
In addition to the "trace" method, you can enable the same trace infor-
mation, and direct the output to a file, by setting the "DBI_TRACE"
environment variable before starting Perl. See "DBI_TRACE" for more
information.
Finally, you can set, or get, the trace settings for a handle using the
"TraceLevel" attribute.
All of those methods use parse_trace_flags() and so allow you set both
the trace level and multiple trace flags by using a string containing
the trace level and/or flag names separated by vertical bar (""|"") or
comma ("","") characters. For example:
local $h->{TraceLevel} = "3|SQL|foo";
Trace Output
Initially trace output is written to "STDERR". Both the "$h->trace"
and "DBI->trace" methods take an optional $trace_filename parameter. If
specified, and can be opened in append mode, then all trace output
(currently including that from other handles) is redirected to that
file. A warning is generated if the file can't be opened.
Further calls to trace() without a $trace_filename do not alter where
the trace output is sent. If $trace_filename is undefined, then trace
output is sent to "STDERR" and the previous trace file is closed.
Currently $trace_filename can't be a filehandle. But meanwhile you can
use the special strings "STDERR" and "STDOUT" to select those filehan-
dles.
Trace Content
Many of the values embeded in trace output are formatted using the
neat() utility function. This means they may be quoted, sanitized, and
possibly truncated if longer than $DBI::neat_maxlen. See "neat" for
more details.
Tracing Tips
You can add tracing to your own application code using the "trace_msg"
method.
It can sometimes be handy to compare trace files from two different
runs of the same script. However using a tool like "diff" doesn't work
well because the trace file is full of object addresses that may differ
each run. Here's a handy little command to strip those out:
perl -pe 's/\b0x[\da-f]{6,}/0xNNNN/gi; s/\b[\da-f]{6,}/<long number>/gi'
DBI ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
The DBI module recognizes a number of environment variables, but most
of them should not be used most of the time. It is better to be
explicit about what you are doing to avoid the need for environment
variables, especially in a web serving system where web servers are
stingy about which environment variables are available.
DBI_DSN
The DBI_DSN environment variable is used by DBI->connect if you do not
specify a data source when you issue the connect. It should have a
format such as "dbi:Driver:databasename".
DBI_DRIVER
The DBI_DRIVER environment variable is used to fill in the database
driver name in DBI->connect if the data source string starts "dbi::"
(thereby omitting the driver). If DBI_DSN omits the driver name,
DBI_DRIVER can fill the gap.
DBI_AUTOPROXY
The DBI_AUTOPROXY environment variable takes a string value that starts
"dbi:Proxy:" and is typically followed by "hostname=...;port=...". It
is used to alter the behaviour of DBI->connect. For full details, see
DBI::Proxy documentation.
DBI_USER
The DBI_USER environment variable takes a string value that is used as
the user name if the DBI->connect call is given undef (as distinct from
an empty string) as the username argument. Be wary of the security
implications of using this.
DBI_PASS
The DBI_PASS environment variable takes a string value that is used as
the password if the DBI->connect call is given undef (as distinct from
an empty string) as the password argument. Be extra wary of the secu-
rity implications of using this.
DBI_DBNAME (obsolete)
The DBI_DBNAME environment variable takes a string value that is used
only when the obsolescent style of DBI->connect (with driver name as
fourth parameter) is used, and when no value is provided for the first
(database name) argument.
DBI_TRACE
The DBI_TRACE environment variable specifies the global default trace
settings for the DBI at startup. Can also be used to direct trace out-
put to a file. When the DBI is loaded it does:
DBI->trace(split /=/, $ENV{DBI_TRACE}, 2) if $ENV{DBI_TRACE};
So if "DBI_TRACE" contains an ""="" character then what follows it is
used as the name of the file to append the trace to.
output appended to that file. If the name begins with a number followed
by an equal sign ("="), then the number and the equal sign are stripped
off from the name, and the number is used to set the trace level. For
example:
DBI_TRACE=1=dbitrace.log perl your_test_script.pl
On Unix-like systems using a Bourne-like shell, you can do this easily
on the command line:
DBI_TRACE=2 perl your_test_script.pl
See "TRACING" for more information.
PERL_DBI_DEBUG (obsolete)
An old variable that should no longer be used; equivalent to DBI_TRACE.
DBI_PROFILE
The DBI_PROFILE environment variable can be used to enable profiling of
DBI method calls. See DBI::Profile for more information.
DBI_PUREPERL
The DBI_PUREPERL environment variable can be used to enable the use of
DBI::PurePerl. See DBI::PurePerl for more information.
WARNING AND ERROR MESSAGES
Fatal Errors
Can't call method "prepare" without a package or object reference
The $dbh handle you're using to call "prepare" is probably unde-
fined because the preceding "connect" failed. You should always
check the return status of DBI methods, or use the "RaiseError"
attribute.
Can't call method "execute" without a package or object reference
The $sth handle you're using to call "execute" is probably unde-
fined because the preceeding "prepare" failed. You should always
check the return status of DBI methods, or use the "RaiseError"
attribute.
DBI/DBD internal version mismatch
The DBD driver module was built with a different version of DBI
than the one currently being used. You should rebuild the DBD mod-
ule under the current version of DBI.
(Some rare platforms require "static linking". On those platforms,
there may be an old DBI or DBD driver version actually embedded in
the Perl executable being used.)
DBD driver has not implemented the AutoCommit attribute
The DBD driver implementation is incomplete. Consult the author.
Can't [sg]et %s->{%s}: unrecognised attribute
You attempted to set or get an unknown attribute of a handle. Make
sure you have spelled the attribute name correctly; case is signif-
icant (e.g., "Autocommit" is not the same as "AutoCommit").
Pure-Perl DBI
A pure-perl emulation of the DBI is included in the distribution for
people using pure-perl drivers who, for whatever reason, can't install
the compiled DBI. See DBI::PurePerl.
SEE ALSO
Driver and Database Documentation
Refer to the documentation for the DBD driver that you are using.
Refer to the SQL Language Reference Manual for the database engine that
you are using.
ODBC and SQL/CLI Standards Reference Information
More detailed information about the semantics of certain DBI methods
that are based on ODBC and SQL/CLI standards is available on-line via
microsoft.com, for ODBC, and www.jtc1sc32.org for the SQL/CLI standard:
DBI method ODBC function SQL/CLI Working Draft
---------- ------------- ---------------------
column_info SQLColumns Page 124
foreign_key_info SQLForeignKeys Page 163
get_info SQLGetInfo Page 214
primary_key_info SQLPrimaryKeys Page 254
table_info SQLTables Page 294
type_info SQLGetTypeInfo Page 239
For example, for ODBC information on SQLColumns you'd visit:
http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/en-us/odbc/htm/odbcsqlcolumns.asp
If that URL ceases to work then use the MSDN search facility at:
http://search.microsoft.com/us/dev/
and search for "SQLColumns returns" using the exact phrase option. The
link you want will probably just be called "SQLColumns" and will be
part of the Data Access SDK.
And for SQL/CLI standard information on SQLColumns you'd read page 124
of the (very large) SQL/CLI Working Draft available from:
http://jtc1sc32.org/doc/N0701-0750/32N0744T.pdf
Standards Reference Information
A hyperlinked, browsable version of the BNF syntax for SQL92 (plus Ora-
cle 7 SQL and PL/SQL) is available here:
http://cui.unige.ch/db-research/Enseignement/analyseinfo/SQL92/BNFindex.html
A BNF syntax for SQL3 is available here:
http://www.sqlstandards.org/SC32/WG3/Progression_Documents/Informal_working_drafts/iso-9075-2-1999.bnf
The following links provide further useful information about SQL. Some
of these are rather dated now but may still be useful.
http://www.jcc.com/SQLPages/jccs_sql.htm
http://www.contrib.andrew.cmu.edu/~shadow/sql.html
http://www.altavista.com/query?q=sql+tutorial
Books and Articles
Programming the Perl DBI, by Alligator Descartes and Tim Bunce.
<http://books.perl.org/book/154>
Programming Perl 3rd Ed. by Larry Wall, Tom Christiansen & Jon Orwant.
<http://books.perl.org/book/134>
Learning Perl by Randal Schwartz. <http://books.perl.org/book/101>
Details of many other books related to perl can be found at
<http://books.perl.org>
Perl Modules
Index of DBI related modules available from CPAN:
http://search.cpan.org/search?mode=module&query=DBIx%3A%3A
http://search.cpan.org/search?mode=doc&query=DBI
For a good comparison of RDBMS-OO mappers and some OO-RDBMS mappers
(including Class::DBI, Alzabo, and DBIx::RecordSet in the former cate-
gory and Tangram and SPOPS in the latter) see the Perl Object-Oriented
Persistence project pages at:
http://poop.sourceforge.net
A similar page for Java toolkits can be found at:
http://c2.com/cgi-bin/wiki?ObjectRelationalToolComparison
Mailing List
The dbi-users mailing list is the primary means of communication among
users of the DBI and its related modules. For details send email to:
dbi-users-help@perl.org
There are typically between 700 and 900 messages per month. You have
to subscribe in order to be able to post. However you can opt for a
'post-only' subscription.
Mailing list archives (of variable quality) are held at:
http://groups.google.com/groups?group=perl.dbi.users
http://www.xray.mpe.mpg.de/mailing-lists/dbi/
http://www.mail-archive.com/dbi-users%40perl.org/
Assorted Related WWW Links
The DBI "Home Page":
http://dbi.perl.org/
Other DBI related links:
http://tegan.deltanet.com/~phlip/DBUIdoc.html
http://dc.pm.org/perl_db.html
http://wdvl.com/Authoring/DB/Intro/toc.html
http://www.hotwired.com/webmonkey/backend/tutorials/tutorial1.html
http://bumppo.net/lists/macperl/1999/06/msg00197.html
http://gmax.oltrelinux.com/dbirecipes.html
Other database related links:
http://www.jcc.com/sql_stnd.html
http://cuiwww.unige.ch/OSG/info/FreeDB/FreeDB.home.html
Security, especially the "SQL Injection" attack:
http://www.ngssoftware.com/research/papers.html
http://www.ngssoftware.com/papers/advanced_sql_injection.pdf
http://www.ngssoftware.com/papers/more_advanced_sql_injection.pdf
http://www.esecurityplanet.com/trends/article.php/2243461
http://www.spidynamics.com/papers/SQLInjectionWhitePaper.pdf
http://www.imperva.com/application_defense_center/white_papers/blind_sql_server_injection.html
http://online.securityfocus.com/infocus/1644
Commercial and Data Warehouse Links
http://www.dwinfocenter.org
http://www.datawarehouse.com
http://www.datamining.org
http://www.olapcouncil.org
http://www.idwa.org
http://www.knowledgecenters.org/dwcenter.asp
Recommended Perl Programming Links
http://language.perl.com/style/
FAQ
Please also read the DBI FAQ which is installed as a DBI::FAQ module.
You can use perldoc to read it by executing the "perldoc DBI::FAQ" com-
mand.
AUTHORS
DBI by Tim Bunce. This pod text by Tim Bunce, J. Douglas Dunlop,
Jonathan Leffler and others. Perl by Larry Wall and the
"perl5-porters".
COPYRIGHT
The DBI module is Copyright (c) 1994-2004 Tim Bunce. Ireland. All
rights reserved.
You may distribute under the terms of either the GNU General Public
License or the Artistic License, as specified in the Perl README file.
SUPPORT / WARRANTY
The DBI is free Open Source software. IT COMES WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY
KIND.
Support
My consulting company, Data Plan Services, offers annual and multi-
annual support contracts for the DBI. These provide sustained support
for DBI development, and sustained value for you in return. Contact me
for details.
Sponsor Enhancements
The DBI Roadmap is available at
<http://search.cpan.org/~timb/DBI/Roadmap.pod>
If your company would benefit from a specific new DBI feature, please
consider sponsoring its development. Work is performed rapidly, and
usually on a fixed-price payment-on-delivery basis. Contact me for
details.
Using such targeted financing allows you to contribute to DBI develop-
ment, and rapidly get something specific and valuable in return.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the many peo-
ple I have worked with on the DBI project, especially in the early
years (1992-1994). In no particular order: Kevin Stock, Buzz Moschetti,
Kurt Andersen, Ted Lemon, William Hails, Garth Kennedy, Michael Pep-
pler, Neil S. Briscoe, Jeff Urlwin, David J. Hughes, Jeff Stander, For-
rest D Whitcher, Larry Wall, Jeff Fried, Roy Johnson, Paul Hudson,
Georg Rehfeld, Steve Sizemore, Ron Pool, Jon Meek, Tom Christiansen,
Steve Baumgarten, Randal Schwartz, and a whole lot more.
Then, of course, there are the poor souls who have struggled through
untold and undocumented obstacles to actually implement DBI drivers.
Among their ranks are Jochen Wiedmann, Alligator Descartes, Jonathan
Leffler, Jeff Urlwin, Michael Peppler, Henrik Tougaard, Edwin Pratomo,
Davide Migliavacca, Jan Pazdziora, Peter Haworth, Edmund Mergl, Steve
Williams, Thomas Lowery, and Phlip Plumlee. Without them, the DBI would
not be the practical reality it is today. I'm also especially grateful
to Alligator Descartes for starting work on the first edition of the
"Programming the Perl DBI" book and letting me jump on board.
The DBI and DBD::Oracle were originally developed while I was Technical
Director (CTO) of the Paul Ingram Group (www.ig.co.uk). So I'd espe-
cially like to thank Paul for his generosity and vision in supporting
this work for many years.
CONTRIBUTING
As you can see above, many people have contributed to the DBI and driv-
ers in many ways over many years.
If you'd like to help then see <http://dbi.perl.org/contributing> and
<http://search.cpan.org/~timb/DBI/Roadmap.pod>
If you'd like the DBI to do something new or different then a good way
to make that happen is to do it yourself and send me a patch to the
source code that shows the changes. (But read "Speak before you patch"
below.)
Browsing the source code repository
Use http://svn.perl.org/modules/dbi/trunk (basic) or
http://svn.perl.org/viewcvs/modules/ (more useful)
How to create a patch using Subversion
The DBI source code is maintained using Subversion (a replacement for
CVS, see <http://subversion.tigris.org/>). To access the source you'll
need to install a Subversion client. Then, to get the source code, do:
svn checkout http://svn.perl.org/modules/dbi/trunk
If it prompts for a username and password use your perl.org account if
you have one, else just 'guest' and 'guest'. The source code will be in
a new subdirectory called "trunk".
To keep informed about changes to the source you can send an empty
email to dbi-changes@perl.org after which you'll get an email with the
change log message and diff of each change checked-in to the source.
After making your changes you can generate a patch file, but before you
do, make sure your source is still upto date using:
svn update
If you get any conflicts reported you'll need to fix them first. Then
generate the patch file from within the "trunk" directory using:
svn diff > foo.patch
Read the patch file, as a sanity check, and then email it to
dbi-dev@perl.org.
How to create a patch without Subversion
Unpack a fresh copy of the distribution:
tar xfz DBI-1.40.tar.gz
Rename the newly created top level directory:
mv DBI-1.40 DBI-1.40.your_foo
Edit the contents of DBI-1.40.your_foo/* till it does what you want.
Test your changes and then remove all temporary files:
make test && make distclean
Go back to the directory you originally unpacked the distribution:
cd ..
Unpack another copy of the original distribution you started with:
tar xfz DBI-1.40.tar.gz
Then create a patch file by performing a recursive "diff" on the two
top level directories:
diff -r -u DBI-1.40 DBI-1.40.your_foo > DBI-1.40.your_foo.patch
Speak before you patch
For anything non-trivial or possibly controversial it's a good idea to
discuss (on dbi-dev@perl.org) the changes you propose before actually
spending time working on them. Otherwise you run the risk of them being
rejected because they don't fit into some larger plans you may not be
aware of.
TRANSLATIONS
A German translation of this manual (possibly slightly out of date) is
available, thanks to O'Reilly, at:
http://www.oreilly.de/catalog/perldbiger/
Some other translations:
http://cronopio.net/perl/ - Spanish
http://member.nifty.ne.jp/hippo2000/dbimemo.htm - Japanese
TRAINING
References to DBI related training resources. No recommendation
implied.
http://www.treepax.co.uk/
http://www.keller.com/dbweb/
(If you offer professional DBI related training services, please send
me your details so I can add them here.)
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
See the DBI FAQ for a more comprehensive list of FAQs. Use the "perldoc
DBI::FAQ" command to read it.
Why doesn't my CGI script work right?
Read the information in the references below. Please do not post CGI
related questions to the dbi-users mailing list (or to me).
http://www.perl.com/cgi-bin/pace/pub/doc/FAQs/cgi/perl-cgi-faq.html
http://www3.pair.com/webthing/docs/cgi/faqs/cgifaq.shtml
http://www-genome.wi.mit.edu/WWW/faqs/www-security-faq.html
http://www.boutell.com/faq/
http://www.perl.com/perl/faq/
How can I maintain a WWW connection to a database?
For information on the Apache httpd server and the "mod_perl" module
see
http://perl.apache.org/
OTHER RELATED WORK AND PERL MODULES
Apache::DBI by E.Mergl@bawue.de
To be used with the Apache daemon together with an embedded Perl
interpreter like "mod_perl". Establishes a database connection
which remains open for the lifetime of the HTTP daemon. This way
the CGI connect and disconnect for every database access becomes
superfluous.
JDBC Server by Stuart 'Zen' Bishop zen@bf.rmit.edu.au
The server is written in Perl. The client classes that talk to it
are of course in Java. Thus, a Java applet or application will be
able to comunicate via the JDBC API with any database that has a
DBI driver installed. The URL used is in the form
"jdbc:dbi://host.domain.etc:999/Driver/DBName". It seems to be
very similar to some commercial products, such as jdbcKona.
Remote Proxy DBD support
As of DBI 1.02, a complete implementation of a DBD::Proxy driver
and the DBI::ProxyServer are part of the DBI distribution.
SQL Parser
See also the SQL::Statement module, SQL parser and engine.
perl v5.8.8 2006-02-07 DBI(3)
See also Bundle::DBI(3)
See also DBI::Const::GetInfo::ANSI(3)
See also DBI::Const::GetInfo::ODBC(3)
See also DBI::Const::GetInfoReturn(3)
See also DBI::Const::GetInfoType(3)
See also DBI::DBD(3)
See also DBI::DBD::Metadata(3)
See also DBI::FAQ(3)
See also DBI::Profile(3)
See also DBI::ProfileData(3)
See also DBI::ProfileDumper(3)
See also DBI::ProfileDumper::Apache(3)
See also DBI::ProxyServer(3)
See also DBI::PurePerl(3)
See also DBI::SQL::Nano(3)
See also DBI::W32ODBC(3)
See also Roadmap(3)
See also XML::Generator::DBI(3)
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